View source for Proto-Nnadū language

{{Infobox language
|name          = Proto-Nnadū
|pronunciation = /nnədɨː/
|region        = Seforma
|familycolor   = Proto-Nnadū

|map    = ProtoNnadū.png
|mapcaption =
{{legend|#0000ff|Proto-Nnadū}}
}}


Agglutinative with inflectional and isolative features.

== Phonology ==

===Consonants===

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 100%;"
| 
! Bilabial
! Alveolar
! Palatal
! Bilabialized palatal
! Velar
! Bilabialized velar
|-
! Nasal
| m
| n
| ɲ
| 
| ŋ
| 
|-
! Tenuis plosive
| p
| t
| c
| cᵝ
| k
| kᵝ
|-
! Ejective plosive
| pʼ
| tʼ
| cʼ
| cʼᵝ
| kʼ
| kʼᵝ
|-
! Voiced plosive
| b
| d
| ɟ
| ɟᵝ
| g
| gᵝ
|-
! Implosive
| ɓ
| ɗ
| ʄ
| ʄᵝ
| ɠ
| ɠᵝ
|-
! Fricative
| 
| s
| 
| 
| x
| xᵝ
|-
! Ejective fricative
| 
| sʼ
| 
| 
| 
| 
|-
! Lateral approximant
| 
| l
| ʎ
| 
| ʟ
| 
|-
! Approximant
| β̞
| 
| j
| 
| 
| 
|}

[p t c cᵝ k kᵝ] /p t c cw k kw/<br>
[pʼ tʼ cʼ cʼᵝ kʼ] kʼᵝ /p̕ t̕ c̕ cw̕ k̕ kw̕/<br>
[b d ɟ ɟᵝ g gᵝ] /b d ġ ġw g gw/<br>
[ɓ ɗ ʄ ʄᵝ ɠ ɠᵝ] /b̕ d̕ ġ̕ ġw̕ g̕ gw̕/<br>
[s sʼ x xᵝ] /s s̕ h hw/<br>
[m n ɲ ŋ] /m n ṇ ŋ/<br>
[l ʎ ʟ] /l ḷ ł/<br>
[j β̝] /j w/<br>

===Vowels===

'''a''' - tenuis short vowel<br>
'''ã''' - nasalized short vowel<br>
'''a̤''' - breathy short vowel<br>
'''aː''' - long vowel

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 100%;"
| rowspan=2 |
! colspan=2 | Front
! colspan=2 | Central
! colspan=2 | Back
|-
! Short
! Long
! Short
! Long
! Short
! Long
|-
! Close
| 
| iː ĩː i̤ː
| 
| ɨː ɨ̃ː ɨ̤ː
| 
| uː ũː ṳː
|-
! Near-close
| 
| 
| ɪ̈ ɪ̃̈ ɪ̤̈
| 
| ʊ ʊ̃ ʊ̤
| 
|-
! Close-mid
| e ẽ e̤
| 
| 
|
|
|
|-
! Mid
| 
| 
| ə ə̃ ə̤
| 
| 
| 
|-
! Open
| 
| 
| 
| aː ãː a̤ː
| 
| 
|}

[iː ĩː i̤ː] /ii įį ịị/<br>
[ɨː ɨ̃ː ɨ̤ː] /uu ųų ụụ/<br>
[uː ũː ṳː] /oo ǫǫ ọọ/<br>
[ɪ̈ ɪ̃̈ ɪ̤̈] /u ų ụ/<br>
[ʊ ʊ̃ ʊ̤] /o ǫ ọ/<br>
[e ẽ e̤] /i į ị/<br>
[ə ə̃ ə̤] /a ą ạ/<br>
[aː ãː a̤ː] /aa ąą ạạ/

=== Phonotactics ===

(C)(C)V(R)(C)

===Accent ===

Grammaticalized tonal pitch accent. Three stress-tones: rising (I), falling (II), rising-falling (III). 

* I - noun/verb stress ('''á : aá''')
* II - adjectival/participial stress ('''à : aà''')
* III - adverbial stress ('''â : aâ''')

* Nouns, nominal adjectives, non-deverbal adverbs - first syllable stress
* Verbs, participles (with deverbal adverbs) - last syllable stress

=== Nouns ===

* tripartite and three-way patient alignment
* possessor (preffixal).

'''Morphemic order:'''

''[Definiteness] + [Case + Possessor + Root + Root extension + (Gender + Number) + Tense]''

====Gender and number====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 100%;"
|
! colspan=3 | Human
! colspan=3 | Non-Human
|-
! Singular
| -ǫh
| '''gwụłǫh'''
| man
| -
| '''kųųł'''
| wolf
|-
! Dual
| -ǫsa
| '''gwụłǫsa'''
| two men
| -ii
| '''kųųłii'''
| two wolves
|-
! Plural
| -
| '''gwụł'''
| men
| -ii
| '''kųųłii'''
| wolves
|}

====Declension====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 100%;"
! Intransitive
| subject of intransitive clauses
| -
| '''kųųł'''
| colspan=1 rowspan=3 | wolf
|-
! Ergative
| agent of transitive or donor of ditransitive clauses
| nį-
| '''nįkųųł'''
|-
! Accusative
| object of transitive clauses
| lạ-
| '''lạkųųł'''
|-
! Causal
| agent of causative clauses
| sǫ-
| '''sǫkųųł'''
| by wolf, because of wolf
|-
! Instrumental
| instrument, tool, accompaniament or theme of ditransitive clauses
| hwaa-
| '''hwaakųųł'''
| with wolf
|-
! Dative
| goal, location or recipient of ditransitive clauses
| mu-
| '''mukųųł'''
| to / for wolf
|}

====Definiteness====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 475px;"
! Neutral
| -
| '''ġwąąḷǫh'''
| woman
|-
! Indefinite
| ạm
| '''ạm ġwąąḷǫh'''
| a woman
|-
! Definite proper
| ąs
| '''ąs ġwąąḷǫh'''
| the woman
|-
! Definite distant
| ooł
| '''ooł ġwąąḷǫh'''
| yonder woman
|}

====Nominal tense====

Tense is obligatory marked on subject or object of sentence (depending on subject marking).

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 475px;"
! Non-past
| -
| '''b̕ịịnǫh'''
| male man
|-
! Past
| -o
| '''b̕ịịnǫho'''
| male man (in past action or situation)
|}

====Possessor====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 100%;"
| rowspan=2 colspan=1 | 
! colspan=6 | Human
! colspan=6 | Non-Human
|-
! colspan=2 | Singular
! colspan=2 | Dual
! colspan=2 | Plural
! colspan=2 | Singular
! colspan=2 | Dual
! colspan=2 | Plural
|-
! 1.
| '''-ąąh''' (← ''aanǫh'')
| my
| '''-ǫǫsa''' (← ''aanǫsa'')
| of both us
| '''-aan''' (← ''aan'')
| of all us
| colspan=6 | -
|-
! 2.
| '''-ǫkw̕''' (← ''kw̕ǫǫh'')
| thy
| '''-kw̕ǫǫs''' (← ''kw̕ǫǫsa'')
| of you both
| '''-ǫkw̕''' (← ''kw̕ǫ'')
| of you all
| '''-ǫcw̕''' (← ''cw̕ǫ'')
| thy
| '''-ǫcw̕įį''' (← ''cw̕ǫii'')
| of you both
| '''-ǫcw̕įį''' (← ''cw̕ǫii'')
| of you all
|-
! 3.
| '''-tǫǫh''' (← ''tạạǫh'')
| his / her
| '''-tǫǫs''' (← ''tạạǫsa'')
| of they both
| '''-tạạ''' (← ''tạạ'')
| of they all
| '''-sạạ''' (← ''sạạ'')
| it
| '''-sịị''' (← ''sạạii'')
| of they both
| '''-sịị''' (← ''sạạii'')
| of they all
|}

=== Verbs ===

* pronominal persons before verb.
* subjective persons cliticized to objectives.

'''Morphemic order:'''

''[Object + Subject] + [Evidentiality] + [Polarity + Mood + Root + Root extension + Voice + Aspect + (Gender + Number)]
''
====Aspect====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 475px;"
! Imperfective
| -
| '''p̕ǫǫkọ-'''
| to speak
|-
! Iterative
| -waaw-
| '''p̕ǫǫkọwaaw-'''
| to speak many times
|-
! Perfective
| -ạd-
| '''p̕ǫǫkọạd-'''
| to say
|}

====Voice====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 475px;"
! Active
| -
| '''paat̕-'''
| to see
|-
! Passive
| -il-
| '''paat̕il-'''
| to be seen
|-
! Medial
| -ųs̕-
| '''paat̕ųs̕-'''
| to see self
|}

====Mood====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 475px;"
! Indicative
| -
| '''d̕ii-'''
| to go
|-
! Conditional
| -ną
| '''d̕iiną'''
| ... would go
|-
! Jussive
| -lạạ
| '''d̕iilạạ'''
| ... should go
|}

====Polarity====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 475px;"
! Affirmative
| -
| '''k̕ụụ-'''
| to stand
|-
! Negative
| ą-
| '''ąk̕ụụ-'''
| don't to stand
|}

====Evidentiality====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 625px;"
! Visual
| -
| '''p̕aap-'''
| to beat (and it is visible)
|-
! Non-visual
| nịŋ
| '''nịŋ p̕aap-'''
| to beat (and it is not seen, but known from other source)
|-
! Reported
| łọọ
| '''łọọ p̕aap-'''
| to beat (and it is non-confirmed information from another hand)
|-
! Assumed
| hạj
| '''hạj pʼaap-'''
| to beat (and it is deducted from a traces)
|}

====Gender and number====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 100%;"
|
! colspan=3 | Human
! colspan=3 | Non-Human
|-
! Singular
| -ǫh
| '''k̕uŋǫh'''
| to make (by human)
| -
| '''k̕uŋ'''
| to make (by something other)
|-
! Dual
| -ǫsa
| '''k̕uŋǫsa'''
| to make (by two humans)
| -ii
| '''k̕uŋii'''
| to make (by two non-humans)
|-
! Plural
| -
| '''k̕uŋ'''
| to make (by a humans)
| -ii
| '''k̕uŋii'''
| to make (by more than two non-humans)
|}

====Non-finite verbs====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
! Action noun
| -nuu
| '''paat̕nuu'''
| vision, seeing
|-
! colspan=4 rawspan=1 | Participles
|-
! Adjectival
| rowspan=2 | pa
| '''pa paàt̕'''
| seeing
|-
! Adverbial
| '''pa paât'''
| seeing
|}

===Adjective and adverb===

====Degrees of comparison====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
! Positive
! Comparative
! Superlative
|-
| -
| pąą
| stạạ
|-
| '''tkw̕ạ̀'''
| '''tkw̕ạ̀ pąą'''
| '''tkw̕ạ̀ stạạ'''
|-
| good
| better
| best
|}

====Adverbs====

====Degrees of comparison====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
! Positive
! Comparative
! Superlative
|-
| -
| pąą
| stạạ
|-
| '''tkw̕ậ hụ'''
| '''tkw̕ậ hụ pąą'''
| '''tkw̕ậ hụ stạạ'''
|-
| well
| better
| best
|}

===Numerals===

====Cardinal numerals====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 260px;"
! 1.
| ǫtạạ
|-
! 2.
| tkųųs
|-
! 3.
| p̕k̕ụụḷi
|-
! 4.
| kłaasọ
|-
! 5.
| s̕oŋkoo
|-
! 6.
| s̕oŋkoo ǫtạạ
|-
! 7.
| s̕oŋkoo tkųųs
|-
! 8.
| s̕oŋkoo p̕k̕ụụḷi
|-
! 9.
| s̕oŋkoo kłaasọ
|-
! 10.
| b̕isaal
|-
! 11.
| b̕isaal ǫtạạ
|-
! 12.
| b̕isaal tkųųs
|-
! 15.
| p̕k̕ụụḷi s̕oŋkoo
|-
! 20.
| tkųųs b̕isaal 
|-
! 21.
| tkųųs b̕isaal ǫtạạ
|-
! 30.
| tkųųs p̕k̕ụụḷi s̕oŋkoo / p̕k̕ụụḷi b̕isaal
|-
! 100.
| b̕isaal b̕isaal
|}

====Derived numerals====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 100%;"
| rowspan=2 |
! Ordinal
! Multiplicative
! Reproductive
! Distributive
! Fractional
|-
! ''-jo''
! ''-s̕iim''
! ''-muuł''
! ''-ṇaaŋ''
! ''-tlįk''
|-
! 1.
| ǫtạạjo
| ǫtạạs̕iim
| ǫtạạmuuł
| ǫtạạṇaaŋ
| ǫtạạtlįk
|-
! 2.
| tkųųsjo
| tkųųss̕iim
| tkųųsmuuł
| tkųųsṇaaŋ
| tkųųstlįk
|-
! 3.
| p̕k̕ụụḷijo
| p̕k̕ụụḷis̕iim
| p̕k̕ụụḷimuuł
| p̕k̕ụụḷiṇaaŋ
| p̕k̕ụụḷitlįk
|-
! 4.
| kłaasọjo
| kłaasọs̕iim
| kłaasọmuuł
| kłaasọṇaaŋ
| kłaasọtlįk
|-
! 5.
| s̕oŋkoojo
| s̕oŋkoos̕iim
| s̕oŋkoomuuł
| s̕oŋkooṇaaŋ
| s̕oŋkootlįk
|-
! 6.
| s̕oŋkoo-ǫtạạjo
| s̕oŋkoo-ǫtạạs̕iim
| s̕oŋkoo-ǫtạạmuuł
| s̕oŋkoo-ǫtạạṇaaŋ
| s̕oŋkoo-ǫtạạtlįk
|-
! 7.
| s̕oŋkoo-tkųųsjo
| s̕oŋkoo-tkųųss̕iim
| s̕oŋkoo-tkųųsmuuł
| s̕oŋkoo-tkųųsṇaaŋ
| s̕oŋkoo-tkųųstlįk
|-
! 8.
| s̕oŋkoo-p̕k̕ụụḷijo
| s̕oŋkoo-p̕k̕ụụḷis̕iim
| s̕oŋkoo-p̕k̕ụụḷimuuł
| s̕oŋkoo-p̕k̕ụụḷiṇaaŋ
| s̕oŋkoo-p̕k̕ụụḷitlįk
|-
! 9.
| s̕oŋkoo-kłaasọjo
| s̕oŋkoo-kłaasọs̕iim
| s̕oŋkoo-kłaasọmuuł
| s̕oŋkoo-kłaasọṇaaŋ
| s̕oŋkoo-kłaasọtlįk
|-
! 10.
| b̕isaaljo
| b̕isaals̕iim
| b̕isaalmuuł
| b̕isaalṇaaŋ
| b̕isaaltlįk
|-
! 11.
| b̕isaal-ǫtạạjo
| b̕isaal-ǫtạạs̕iim
| b̕isaal-ǫtạạmuuł
| b̕isaal-ǫtạạṇaaŋ
| b̕isaal-ǫtạạtlįk
|-
! 11.
| b̕isaal-tkųųsjo
| b̕isaal-tkųųss̕iim
| b̕isaal-tkųųsmuuł
| b̕isaal-tkųųsṇaaŋ
| b̕isaal-tkųųstlįk
|-
! 15.
| p̕k̕ụụḷi-s̕oŋkoojo
| p̕k̕ụụḷi-s̕oŋkoos̕iim
| p̕k̕ụụḷi-s̕oŋkoomuuł
| p̕k̕ụụḷi-s̕oŋkooṇaaŋ
| p̕k̕ụụḷi-s̕oŋkootlįk
|-
! 20.
| tkųųs-b̕isaaljo
| tkųųs-b̕isaals̕iim
| tkųųs-b̕isaalmuuł
| tkųųs-b̕isaalṇaaŋ
| tkųųs-b̕isaaltlįk
|-
! 21.
| tkųųs-b̕isaal-ǫtạạjo
| tkųųs-b̕isaal-ǫtạạs̕iim
| tkųųs-b̕isaal-ǫtạạmuuł
| tkųųs-b̕isaal-ǫtạạṇaaŋ
| tkųųs-b̕isaal-ǫtạạtlįk
|-
! 30.
| tkųųs-p̕k̕ụụḷi-s̕oŋkoojo
| tkųųs-p̕k̕ụụḷi-s̕oŋkoos̕iim
| tkųųs-p̕k̕ụụḷi-s̕oŋkoomuuł
| tkųųs-p̕k̕ụụḷi-s̕oŋkooṇaaŋ
| tkųųs-p̕k̕ụụḷi-s̕oŋkootlįk
|-
! 100.
| b̕isaal-b̕isaaljo
| b̕isaal-b̕isaals̕iim
| b̕isaal-b̕isaalmuuł
| b̕isaal-b̕isaalṇaaŋ
| b̕isaal-b̕isaaltlįk
|}

=== Pronouns ===

* tense marker
* gender stems with number cliticization.

====Personal pronouns====

Objective personal pronouns are pre-cliticized to subjectives.

=====Objectives=====

Objectives of the 1.-2. persons have their own stems.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 100%;"
| rowspan=2 colspan=1 | 
! colspan=6 | Human
! colspan=6 | Non-Human
|-
! colspan=2 | Singular
! colspan=2 | Dual
! colspan=2 | Plural
! colspan=2 | Singular
! colspan=2 | Dual
! colspan=2 | Plural
|-
! 1.
| '''lǫh'''
| me
| '''lǫǫs'''
| us both
| '''la'''
| us all
| colspan=6 | -
|-
! 2.
| '''jǫh'''
| thee
| '''jǫǫs'''
|  two
| '''ja'''
| we all
| '''hwǫh'''
| thou
| '''hwǫǫs'''
| we two
| '''hwa'''
| we all
|-
! 3.
| '''tạǫǫh'''
| he / she
| '''tạǫǫs'''
| they two
| '''tạ'''
| they all
| '''sạ'''
| it
| '''sạii'''
| they two
| '''sạii'''
| they all
|}

=====Subjectives=====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 100%;"
| rowspan=2 colspan=1 | 
! colspan=6 | Human
! colspan=6 | Non-Human
|-
! colspan=2 | Singular
! colspan=2 | Dual
! colspan=2 | Plural
! colspan=2 | Singular
! colspan=2 | Dual
! colspan=2 | Plural
|-
! 1.
| '''aanǫh'''
| I
| '''aanǫsa'''
| we two
| '''aan'''
| we all
| colspan=6 | -
|-
! 2.
| '''kw̕ǫǫh'''
| thou
| '''kw̕ǫǫsa'''
| you both
| '''kw̕ǫ'''
| you all
| '''cw̕ǫ'''
| thou
| '''cw̕ǫii'''
| you both
| '''cw̕ǫii'''
| you all
|-
! 3.
| '''tạạǫh'''
| he / she
| '''tạạǫsa'''
| they two
| '''tạạ'''
| they all
| '''sạạ'''
| it
| '''sạạii'''
| they two
| '''sạạii'''
| they all
|}

====Demonstrative pronouns====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 100%;"
|-
| 
! colspan=2 | Definite proper
! colspan=2 | Definite distant
! colspan=2 | Indefinite
|-
! Person
| '''ąs'''
| this
| '''ooł'''
| that
| '''ạm'''
| someone
|-
! Non-Human
| '''ąs'''
| this
| '''ooł'''
| that
| '''ạm'''
| something
|-
! Place
| '''ąspaad̕'''
| here
| '''oołpaad̕'''
| there
| '''ạmpaad̕'''
| somewhere
|-
! Source
| '''hụnąspaad̕'''
| from here
| '''hụnoołpaad̕'''
| from there
| '''hụnạmpaad̕'''
| from somewhere
|-
! Purpose direction
| '''koąspaad̕'''
| to here
| '''koołpaad̕'''
| to there, so far
| '''koạmpaad̕'''
| to somewhere
|-
! Path
| '''ąsg̕uła'''
| this way
| '''oołg̕uła'''
| that way
| '''ạmg̕uła'''
| some way
|-
! Time
| '''ąscạạł'''
| now
| '''oołcạạł'''
| then
|-
|-
! Method
| '''ąsḷịị'''
| in this way
| '''oołḷịị'''
| in that way
| '''ạmḷịị'''
| in some way
|-
! Quantity
| '''ąsg̕łaa'''
| so much
|-
! Qualify
| '''ḷiiąs'''
| like this here
| '''ḷiiooł'''
| like that
| '''ḷiiạm'''
| like something
|-
! Reason
| '''ąspạạ'''
| for this reason
| '''oołpạạ'''
| for that reason
| '''ạmpạạ'''
| for some reason
|}

====Interrogative, relative, indefinite and unlimited pronouns====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 100%;"
|-
| 
! colspan=2 | Interrogative / Relative
! colspan=2 | Indefinite
! colspan=2 | Unlimited
|-
! Person
| '''tii'''
| who ? which ?
| '''tiiha'''
| someone
| '''tiisa'''
| anyone
|-
! Non-Human
| '''pạạ'''
| what ? which ?
| '''pạạha'''
| something
| '''pạạsa'''
| anything
|-
! Place
| '''magwi'''
| where ?
| '''magwiha'''
| somewhere
| '''magwisa'''
| anywhere
|-
! Source
| '''hụnmagwi'''
| whence ?
| '''hụnmagwiha'''
| from somewhere
| '''hụnmagwisa'''
| from anywhere
|-
! Purpose direction
| '''komagwi'''
| whither ?
| '''komagwiha'''
| to somewhere
| '''komagwisa'''
| to anywhere
|-
! Path
| '''ḷịg̕uła'''
| which way ?
| '''ḷịg̕ułaha'''
| via some way
| '''ḷịg̕ułasa'''
| via any way
|-
! Time
| '''ḷịcạạł'''
| when ?
| '''ḷịcạạłha'''
| once
| '''ḷịcạạłsa'''
| ever
|-
! Method
| '''ḷịị'''
| how ?
| '''ḷịịha'''
| somehow
| '''ḷịịsa'''
| anyhow
|-
! Quantity
| '''ḷịg̕łaa'''
| how much ?
| '''ḷịg̕łaaha'''
| somehow much
| '''ḷịg̕łaasa'''
| anyhow much
|-
! Qualify
| '''ḷịtii'''
| which one ?
| '''kaa'''
| some
| '''kwąą'''
| any
|-
! Reason
| '''kopạạ'''
| why ?
|-
|}

====Negative, universal and alternative pronouns====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 100%;"
|-
| 
! colspan=2 | Negative
! colspan=2 | Universal
! colspan=2 | Alternative
|-
! Person
| '''ątii'''
| nobody
| '''maatii'''
| every
| '''hwịtiisa'''
| anyone else
|-
! Non-Human
| '''ąpạạ'''
| nothing
| '''maapạạ'''
| every, all
| '''hwịpạạsa'''
| anything else
|-
! Place
| '''ąmagwi'''
| nowhere
| '''maamagwi'''
| everywhere
| '''hwịmagwisa'''
| elswhere
|-
! Source
| '''hụnąmagwi'''
| from nowhere
| '''hụnmaamagwi'''
| from everywhere
| '''hụnmagwisa'''
| from elswhere
|-
! Purpose direction
| '''koąmagwi'''
| to nowhere
| '''komaamagwi'''
| to everywhere
| '''komagwisa'''
| to elswhere
|-
! Path
| '''ąg̕uła'''
| through no way
| '''maag̕uła'''
| through all ways
| '''g̕ułasa'''
| which way else
|-
! Time
| '''ącạạł'''
| never
| '''maacạạł'''
| always
| '''cạạłsa'''
| when else
|-
! Method
| '''ąị'''
| nohow
| '''maaị'''
| in all methods
| '''ịsa'''
| otherwise
|-
! Quantity
| '''ąg̕łaa'''
| nothing
| '''maag̕łaa'''
| otherwise than so many
|-
! Quality
| '''ąsụk̕'''
| neuter, indistinct
| '''maasụk̕'''
| any
| '''sụk̕sa'''
| other
|}

====Numeral pronouns====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 430px;"
|-
! Interrogative / Relative
| '''ḷịg̕łaa'''
| how much ?
|-
! Indefinite
| '''ḷịg̕łaaha'''
| write a number
|-
! Unlimited
| '''ḷịg̕łaasa'''
| however many
|-
! Negative
| '''ąg̕łaa'''
| nothing
|-
! Alternative
| '''maag̕łaa'''
| otherwise than so many
|}

====Reflexive, reciprocal and cooperative pronouns====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 475px;"
|-
! Reflexive
| '''cų'''
| oneself
|-
! Reciprocal
| '''tkųųc''' (← ''tkųųs-cu'')
| each other
|-
! Cooperative
| '''cilt̕ạ''' (← ''cil-t̕ạ'')
| together cooperatively
|}

===Prepositions===

====Spatials, ablatival and allatival directionals====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 430px;"
|-
! rowspan=3 | ạs̕
| in, inside
! Instrumental
|-
| from inside
! Accusative
|-
| to inside
! Dative
|-
| colspan=3 | 
|-
! rowspan=3 | ṇį
| on
! Instrumental
|-
| from on
! Accusative
|-
| to on
! Dative
|-
| colspan=3 |
|-
! rowspan=3 | t̕aab
| above
! Instrumental
|-
| from above
! Accusative
|-
| to above
! Dative
|-
| colspan=3 |
|-
! rowspan=3 | d̕ọọm
| under
! Instrumental
|-
| from under
! Accusative
|-
| to under
! Dative
|-
| colspan=3 | 
|-
! rowspan=3 | kịṇ
| beside
! Instrumental
|-
| from beside
! Accusative
|-
| to beside
! Dative
|-
| colspan=3 |
|-
! rowspan=3 | gwǫǫk̕
| away
! Instrumental
|-
| from away
! Accusative
|-
| to away
! Dative
|-
| colspan=3 | 
|-
! rowspan=3 | ạs̕tkųųs
| between
! Instrumental
|-
| from between
! Accusative
|-
| to between
! Dative
|-
| colspan=3 | 
|-
! rowspan=3 | htaa
| behind
! Instrumental
|-
| from behind
! Accusative
|-
| to behind
! Dative
|-
| colspan=3 | 
|-
! rowspan=3 | wạạ
| out
! Instrumental
|-
| from out
! Accusative
|-
| to out
! Dative
|-
| colspan=3 | 
|-
! rowspan=3 | hwąąk
| around
! Instrumental
|-
| from around
! Accusative
|-
| to around
! Dative
|-
| colspan=3 | 
|-
! rowspan=3 | psaaw
| before, opposite to
! Instrumental
|-
| from before, from opposite to
! Accusative
|-
| to before, to opposite to
! Dative
|-
| colspan=3 | 
|-
! rowspan=3 | ạs̕cạạł
| during, in time of
! Instrumental
|-
| from time of
! Accusative
|-
| to time of
! Dative
|-
| colspan=3 | 
|-
! rowspan=3 | ġwi
| after
! Instrumental
|-
| from after
! Accusative
|-
| to after
! Dative
|}

====Other prepositions====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 430px;"
|-
! Companion, attributive object
| '''cil'''
| with
! Instrumental
|-
! Origin
| '''hụn'''
| from
! Accusative
|-
! Lack
| '''uus'''
| without
! Accusative
|-
! Alternative
| '''ạspaad̕'''
| instead
! Accusative
|-
! Contrary
| '''ạspsaaw'''
| against
! Dative
|-
! Resistance
| '''ałą'''
| despite, though
! Accusative
|-
! Stylization
| '''ṇįġ̕is̕'''
| along to, according to
! Dative
|}

===Particles===

====Conjunctions====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 300px;"
! colspan=3 rawspan=1 | Paratactical conjunctions
|-
! Copulative
| '''t̕ạ'''
| and
|-
! Conjunctive
| '''hụt̕'''
| also
|-
! Disjunctive
| '''jạ'''
| or
|-
! Contrastive, exceptional
| '''ḷǫǫ'''
| but
|-
! Consequentive
| '''ŋọọ'''
| so
|-
! Comparative
| '''łuuŋ'''
| than
|-
| colspan=3 |
|-
! colspan=3 rowspan=1 | Hypotactical conjunctions
|-
| colspan=2 | '''kwį'''
| to, for
|-
| colspan=2 | '''głoo'''
| althought
|-
| colspan=2 | '''ŋkiin'''
| because
|-
| colspan=2 | '''p̕ịị'''
| if
|-
| colspan=2 | '''knah'''
| that, providing
|}

====Modifiers====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
|-
! Restrictive
|  '''hwǫt'''
| only
|-
! Additive
| '''ạhcị'''
| yet
|}

====Polarity particles====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 400px;"
! Affirmative
| '''bạ'''
| yes
|-
! Negative
| '''ąą'''
| no
|}

==Word formation==

===Compounding===

===Derivation===

====Noun====
 
===== Noun to noun=====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 100%;"
|-
! Diminutive
| '''-ṇii'''
| '''dlạạhwįǫh''' → '''dlạạhwįṇiiǫh'''
| daughter → little daughter
|-
! Augmentative
| '''-b̕ạạ'''
| '''waaguu''' → '''waaguub̕ạạ'''
| mountain → grand mountain
|-
! Contradiction
| '''ą-'''
| '''gwụłǫh''' → '''ągwụłǫh'''
| human → non-human
|-
! Similarity
| '''nsup̕-'''
| '''buŋką''' → '''nsupbuŋką'''
| tree → pseudo-tree
|-
! Half
| '''t̕ạạl-'''
| '''sk̕ųųla''' → '''t̕ạạlsk̕ųųla'''
| dog → half-dog
|-
! Relational abstract
| '''-łoos̕'''
| '''bạạc̕ǫh''' → '''bạạc̕łoos̕'''
| brother → brotherhood
|-
! Related person
| '''-įk'''
| '''gʷọọma''' → '''gʷọọmaįk'''
| cow  → cowman
|-
! Collective
| '''-ạt'''
| '''p̕ạp̕įk''' → '''p̕ạp̕įkạt'''
| bird  → birds (a a collective)
|-
! Place
| '''-mooḷ'''
| '''t̕uk̕''' → '''t̕uk̕mooḷ'''
| fire → campfire
|-
! Art / Craft
| '''-hmaada'''
| '''koomb̕ṇi''' → '''koombṇihmaada'''
| war → craft of war
|-
! Knowledge
| '''-jọọġ'''
| '''cḷąąh''' → '''cḷąąhjọọġ'''
| herb → herbalism
|-
! Expert
| '''-jọọġįk'''
| '''cḷąąhjọọġ''' → '''cḷąąhjọọġįk'''
| herbalism → herbalist
|}

=====Noun to adjective=====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 100%;"
|-
! Possessive
| '''-tiiŋ'''
| '''gwụłǫh''' → '''gwụłtiiŋǫh'''
| man → human
|-
! Originative
| '''-hụn'''
| '''ŋgwoom''' → '''ŋgwoomhụn'''
| sky → celestial
|-
! Similaritive
| '''-taat'''
| '''hpooj''' → '''hpoojtaat'''
| cat → felid
|-
! Feature
| '''-maaṇ'''
| '''ḷiic''' → '''ḷiicmaaṇ'''
| hair → hairy
|-
! Affiliative
| '''-jon'''
| '''mnịịgw̕ǫh''' → '''mnịịgw̕jonǫh'''
| family → familiar
|-
! Privative
| '''ą-...-tiiŋ'''
| '''g̕iṇc''' → '''ąg̕iṇctiiŋ'''
| tooth → toothless
|}

====Verb====
 
=====Verb to noun=====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 100%;"
|-
! Agentive
| '''-ąk'''
| '''sooh-''' → '''soohąk'''
| (to) shoot → shooter
|-
! Experiencer, adressee
| '''-nuu'''
| '''d̕jaał-'''- → '''d̕jaałnuu'''
| (to) teach → learner
|-
! Result
| '''-saah'''
| '''kad̕-'''- → '''kad̕saah'''
| (to) fall → (a) fall
|-
! Instance
| '''-ṇi'''
| '''p̕ǫǫkọ-''' → '''p̕ǫǫkọṇi'''
| (to) speak → speech 
|-
! Instrument
| '''-k̕oḷ'''
| '''p̕aap-''' → '''p̕aapk̕oḷ'''
| (to) beat → whip
|-
! Place
| '''-mooḷ'''
| '''dag-''' → '''dagmooḷ'''
| (to) kill → slaughterhouse
|}

=====Verb to verb=====



====Adjective====
 
=====Adjective to noun=====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 100%;"
|-
! Abstract
| '''-jaas'''
| '''bọọŋ''' → '''bọọŋjaas'''
| strong → strength
|}

=====Adjective to adjective=====

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 100%;"
|-
! Tendency
| '''-liis'''
| '''tkw̕â''' → '''tkwâliis'''
| good → bland
|-
! Intensification
| '''-skaa'''
| '''mbaâs''' → '''mbaâsskaa'''
| big → very big
|-
! Excess
| '''-pi'''
| '''cwį̂t''' → '''cwį̂tpi'''
| small → too small
|}

== Syntax ==

===Word order===

* '''OSV''' ''(Object - Subject - Verb)''

===Copular verbs===

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; width: 300px;"
! Translative
| '''nukoh'''
| became
|-
! Essive
| '''nu'''
| be
|-
! Excessive
| '''nugạt̕'''
| cease to be
|}

== See Also ==

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