Phonology
Consonants
|
|
Bilabial
|
Alveolar
|
Palatal
|
Velar
|
Glottal
|
| Nasal
|
m
|
n
|
|
ŋ
|
|
| Tenuis plosive
|
p~ɸ
|
t~ɾ̻
|
|
k~x
|
ʔ~h
|
| Voiced plosive
|
b~β̞
|
d~ɾ
|
|
g~ɰ
|
|
| Fricative
|
|
s
|
|
|
|
| Trill
|
|
r
|
|
|
|
| Approximant
|
|
l
|
j
|
|
|
Spelling
p~ɸ t~ɾ̻ k~x ʔ~h /p~f t~ṭ k~x '~h/
b~β̝ d~ɾ g~ɰ /b~v d~ḍ g~ḥ/
s /s/
m n ŋ /m n ŋ/
l r /l r/
j /j/
Deplosivization
Plosives are deplosivized to non-plosive counterparts in positions between vowels and before another plosive consonant.
Vowels
|
|
Front
|
Central
|
Back
|
| Close
|
i
|
|
u
|
| Mid
|
e
|
ə
|
o
|
| Open
|
|
a
|
|
i u /i u/
e ə o /e ə o/
ä /a/
Vocalic harmony (Low vs High)
Phonotactics
(C)V(R/F)(C)
C = any consonant
V = any vowel
R = any resonantal consonant
F = any fricative
Accent
Acute accent on first syllable.
Grammar
Nouns
- indirective ditransitive alignment
- no case and gender
- relational nouns
- possessors (preffixal)
- tense markers (suffixal): shows position of an objects in time
- definiteness: definite and indefinite clitics
[Possessor + Number + Root + Root extension + Definiteness + Tense] + [Relational noun's construction]
Number
| Singular
|
-
|
kujlə
|
wolf
|
| Plural
|
sa-
|
saxojla
|
wolves
|
Tense
| Present
|
-
|
loḍja
|
word
|
| Past
|
-ta / -tə
|
loḍjata
|
former word
|
| Future
|
-ne / -ni
|
loḍjane
|
future word
|
Definiteness
| Neutral / Gnomic
|
-
|
bolga
|
camel
|
| Definite
|
-ḍi / -ḍe
|
bolgaḍe
|
the camel
|
| Indefinite
|
-mu / -mo
|
bolgamo
|
a camel
|
Possessor
|
|
Singular
|
Plural
|
| 1.
|
li-
|
I
|
ni-
|
we all, but not you
|
| pi-
|
we all, together with you
|
| 2.
|
sə-
|
Thou
|
tol-
|
You all
|
| 3.
|
ka-
|
He / she / it
|
'ahl-
|
They all
|
| 4.
|
'eŋ-
|
Someone / something
|
Relational nouns
Noun + [Possessor + Relational noun]
Burxdi kafaṭaḍe pelte pusujim.
"The dog is sleeping on top of the mat."
Spatials
| 'els
|
inside
|
in
|
| paṭa
|
top
|
on
|
| talba
|
head
|
above
|
| tote
|
foot
|
under
|
| 'afo
|
side
|
beside
|
| galam
|
distance
|
away
|
| maṭpa
|
centre
|
between
|
| kaḍa
|
back
|
behind, after
|
| 'əsrə
|
outside
|
out
|
| puluxu
|
wheel
|
around
|
| kəvri
|
front
|
before, opposite to
|
| naxat
|
time
|
during, in time of
|
Other relationals
| Companion, attributive object
|
keme
|
with
|
| Originative direction
|
'atla
|
from
|
| Destinative direction, purpose, goal
|
tala'
|
to
|
| Lack
|
lokem
|
without
|
| Alternative
|
'ampere
|
instead
|
| Contrary
|
surə
|
against
|
| Resistance
|
'ofet
|
despite, though
|
| Stylization
|
najdo
|
along to, according to
|
| Benefactive
|
kuxo
|
for, destined to
|
| Essive
|
'aja
|
as, at character of
|
Verbs
- polypersonal agreement (preffixal): subjective and objective
- persons with clusivity in first, second and third person + obviative
- intransitivity suffixed
- three tenses (preffixal): present, past, future
- three aspects (suffixal): durative, frequentative, momentane
- two moods (cliticized): realis, irrealis
- causative by auxiliary verb
[Subject + Object + Tense + Root + Root extension + Transitivity + Aspect + Mood]
Tense
| Present
|
-
|
-taxe
|
to work
|
| Past
|
di-
|
-ditaxe
|
to work (in past)
|
| Future
|
ne-
|
-netaxe
|
to work (in future)
|
Aspect
| Durative
|
-
|
taḥla
|
to speak
|
| Frequentative
|
-ri / -re
|
taḥlare
|
to speak often
|
| Momentane
|
-at / -ət / -t
|
taḥlat
|
quickly to say
|
| Perfective
|
-es / -is / -s
|
taḥlas
|
to say
|
Transitivity
| Transitive
|
-
|
tem
|
to see (in transitive clause)
|
| Intransitive
|
-an- / -ən- / -n-
|
teman
|
to see (in intransitive clause)
|
Moods
| Realis
|
-
|
ak
|
to go
|
| Irrealis
|
-ad / -əd / -d
|
axad
|
... would go
|
Person
Subjective
|
|
Singular
|
Plural
|
| 1.
|
li-
|
liṭim
|
I am seeing
|
ni-
|
niṭim
|
we all are seeing, but not you
|
| pi-
|
piṭim
|
we all are seeing, together with you
|
| 2.
|
sə-
|
səṭim
|
Thou art seeing
|
to-
|
toṭem
|
You all are seeing
|
| 3.
|
ka-
|
kaṭem
|
He / she / it is seeing
|
'ah-
|
ahoṭem
|
They all are seeing
|
| 4.
|
'eŋ-
|
'eŋtem
|
Someone / something is seeing
|
Objective
|
|
Singular
|
Plural
|
| 1.
|
-li-
|
-liṭim
|
I am seeing
|
-ni-
|
-niṭim
|
we all are seeing, but not you
|
| -fi-
|
-fiṭim
|
we all are seeing, together with you
|
| 2.
|
-sə-
|
-səṭim
|
Thou art seeing
|
-ṭo-
|
-ṭoṭem
|
You all are seeing
|
| 3.
|
-xa-
|
-xaṭem
|
He / she / it is seeing
|
-hah-
|
-hahṭem
|
They all are seeing
|
| 4.
|
-heŋ-
|
-heŋtem
|
Someone / something is seeing
|
Non-finite verbal forms
| Action noun
|
-ja / -jə
|
bavja
|
living
|
| Infinitive
|
-ko / -ku
|
bavko'
|
to live
|
| Participle
|
-jem / -jim
|
bavjem
|
living
|
Adjective / Adverb
Degrees of comparison
| Positive
|
Comparative
|
Superlative
|
| -
|
-ses / -sis
|
-tat / -tət
|
| jev
|
jevses
|
jevtat
|
| good
|
better
|
best
|
Numerals
Cardinal numerals
| 1.
|
'aṭan
|
| 2.
|
sixik
|
| 3.
|
tamek
|
| 4.
|
tamek 'aṭan
|
| 5.
|
tamek sixik
|
Derived numerals
|
|
Ordinal
|
Multiplicative
|
Reproductive
|
Distributive
|
| 'a
|
kal'a
|
pəṭ'ə
|
taha
|
| 1.
|
'a 'aṭan
|
kal'a 'aṭan
|
pəṭ'ə 'aṭan
|
taha 'aṭan
|
| 2.
|
'a sixik
|
kal'a sixik
|
pəṭ'ə sixik
|
taha sixik
|
| 3.
|
'a tamek
|
kal'a tamek
|
pəṭ'ə tamek
|
taha tamek
|
| 4.
|
'a tamek 'aṭan
|
kal'a tamek 'aṭan
|
pəṭ'ə tamek 'aṭan
|
taha tamek 'aṭan
|
| 5.
|
'a tamek sixik
|
kal'a tamek sixik
|
pəṭ'ə tamek sixik
|
taha tamek sixik
|
Pronouns
- clusivity
- age hierarchy: young, average, older.
Personal pronouns
Young age
Subjective
|
|
Singular
|
Plural
|
| 1.
|
lixi
|
I
|
nixi
|
we, but not you
|
| pixi
|
we, together with you
|
| 2.
|
səxi
|
Thou
|
toxi
|
You all
|
| 3.
|
kaxi
|
He / she / it
|
'ahki
|
They all
|
| 4.
|
'eŋki
|
Someone / something
|
Objective
|
|
Singular
|
Plural
|
| 1.
|
lilki
|
me
|
nilki
|
us all, but not you
|
| filki
|
us all, together with you
|
| 2.
|
səlki
|
Thee
|
tolke
|
You all
|
| 3.
|
kalke
|
He / she / it
|
'alehke
|
Them all
|
| 4.
|
'eŋelke
|
Someone / something
|
Average
Subjective
|
|
Singular
|
Plural
|
| 1.
|
li
|
I
|
ni
|
we all, but not you
|
| pi
|
we all, together with you
|
| 2.
|
sə
|
Thou
|
tol
|
You all
|
| 3.
|
ka
|
He / she / it
|
'ahl
|
They all
|
| 4.
|
'eŋ
|
Someone / something
|
Objective
|
|
Singular
|
Plural
|
| 1.
|
lil
|
I
|
nil
|
us all, but not you
|
| fil
|
us all, together with you
|
| 2.
|
səl
|
Thee
|
tol
|
You all
|
| 3.
|
kal
|
Him / her / its
|
'ahl
|
Them all
|
| 4.
|
'eŋel
|
Someone / something
|
Older
Subjective
|
|
Singular
|
Plural
|
| 1.
|
lisəp
|
I
|
nisəp
|
we all, but not you
|
| pisəp
|
we all, together with you
|
| 2.
|
səsəp
|
Thou
|
tosap
|
You all
|
| 3.
|
kasap
|
He / she / it
|
'ahsap
|
They all
|
| 4.
|
'eŋsap
|
Someone / something
|
Objective
|
|
Singular
|
Plural
|
| 1.
|
lilsəp
|
me
|
nilsəp
|
us all, but not you
|
| filsəp
|
us all, together with you
|
| 2.
|
səlsəp
|
Thee
|
tolsap
|
You all
|
| 3.
|
kalsap
|
Him / her / its
|
'ahelsap
|
Them all
|
| 4.
|
heŋelsap
|
Someone / something
|
Demonstrative pronouns
|
|
Definite
|
Indefinite
|
| Person / Object
|
di
|
this
|
mu
|
someone / something
|
| Place
|
'aḍe
|
here
|
maṭamo
|
somewhere
|
| Path
|
tahaḍe
|
this way
|
tahamo
|
some way
|
| Time
|
naxatḍe
|
now
|
naxatmo
|
then
|
| Method
|
'eseḍe
|
in this way
|
'esemo
|
in some way
|
| Quantity
|
nafḍe
|
so much
|
| Qualify
|
saḍoḍe
|
like this
|
saḍome
|
like something
|
| Reason
|
kafraḍe
|
for this reason
|
kaframo
|
for some reason
|
Interrogative, relative, indefinite and unlimited pronouns
|
|
Interrogative / Relative
|
Indefinite
|
Unlimited
|
| Person / Object
|
pə
|
who ? which ?
|
pəfə
|
someone
|
pərəsu
|
anyone
|
| Place
|
pəha
|
where ?
|
pəhəfə
|
somewhere
|
pəhərəsu
|
anywhere
|
| Path
|
pəṭəhə
|
which way ?
|
pəṭəhəfə
|
via some way
|
pəṭəhərəsu
|
via any way
|
| Time
|
pənəxət
|
when ?
|
pənəxəṭfə
|
once
|
pənəxərəsu
|
ever
|
| Method
|
pəhisi
|
how ?
|
pəhisifə
|
somehow
|
pəhisirəsu
|
anyhow
|
| Quantity
|
pənəf
|
how much ?
|
pənəffə
|
somehow much
|
pənəfrəsu
|
anyhow much
|
| Quality
|
pəsəḍu
|
which one ?
|
pəsəḍufə
|
some
|
pəsəḍurəsu
|
any
|
| Reason
|
pəxəfrə
|
why ?
|
Negative, universal and alternative pronouns
|
|
Negative
|
Universal
|
Alternative
|
| Person / Object
|
lofa
|
nobody, nothing
|
sarafa
|
every
|
pənuxi
|
anyone else
|
| Place
|
loha
|
nowhere
|
saraha
|
everywhere
|
'anoxe
|
elswhere
|
| Path
|
loṭəhə
|
through no way
|
saraṭəhə
|
through all ways
|
tahanoxe
|
which way else
|
| Time
|
lonaxat
|
never
|
saranaxat
|
always
|
naxaṭnoxe
|
when else
|
| Method
|
lohese
|
nohow
|
sarahese
|
in all methods
|
'isinuxi
|
otherwise
|
| Quantity
|
lonap
|
nothing
|
saranap
|
otherwise than so many
|
| Quality
|
losaḍo
|
neuter, indistinct
|
sarasaḍo
|
any
|
saḍonap
|
other
|
Numeral pronouns
| Interrogative / Relative
|
pənəf
|
how much ?
|
| Indefinite
|
nafḍe
|
write a number
|
| Unlimited
|
pənəfrəsu
|
however many
|
| Negative
|
lonap
|
nothing
|
| Alternative
|
saranap
|
otherwise than so many
|
Reflexive-reciprocal pronoun
| Reflexive / Reciprocal
|
nun
|
oneself / each other
|
Particles
Conjunctions
| Paratactical conjunctions
|
| Copulative
|
'i
|
and
|
| Conjunctive
|
'ihi
|
also
|
| Disjunctive
|
bəs
|
or
|
| Contrastive, exceptional
|
'ahe
|
but
|
| Consequentive
|
jahe
|
so
|
| Comparative
|
'ohe
|
than
|
|
|
| Hypotactical conjunctions
|
| koxese
|
to, for
|
| 'ofet
|
althought
|
| tiṭi
|
because
|
| ja'o
|
if
|
| 'erep
|
that, providing
|
Modifiers
| Restrictive
|
'aṭat
|
only
|
| Additive
|
'aṭe'a
|
yet
|
Polarity particles
| Affirmative
|
'at
|
yes
|
| Negative
|
lo
|
no
|
Word formation
Compounding
Derivation
Noun
Noun to noun
| Diminutive
|
-ki / -ke
|
tahoje → tahojeke
|
daughter → little daughter
|
| Augmentative
|
-ram / -rəm
|
baḥgo → baḥgoram
|
mountain → grand mountain
|
| Contradiction
|
lo-
|
binə → lobena
|
human → non-human
|
| Similarity
|
-kavka / -kəvkə
|
koḍeb → koḍevkavka
|
tree → pseudo-tree
|
| Half
|
-pok / -puk
|
burk → burxpuk
|
dog → half-dog
|
| Relational abstract
|
-jak / -jək
|
naḍaŋ → naḍaŋjak
|
brother → brotherhood
|
| Related person
|
-binə / -bena
|
muxbi → muxbibinə
|
cow → cowman
|
| Collective
|
-tahe / -təhi
|
'afla → 'aflatahe
|
bird → birds (a a collective)
|
| Place
|
-'a / -'ə / -ha / -hə
|
pirfir → pirfir'ə
|
fire → campfire
|
| Art / Craft
|
-məfki / -mafke
|
kovad → kovaḍmafke
|
war → craft of war
|
| Knowledge
|
-deme / -dimi
|
soxma → soxmadimi
|
herb → herbalism
|
| Expert
|
-jem
|
soxma → soxmajem
|
herb → herbalist
|
Noun to adjective
| Possessive
|
-əni / -ane / -ni / -ne
|
binə → binəni
|
man → human
|
| Originative
|
-əni / -ane / -ni / -ne
|
dande → dandane
|
sky → celestial
|
| Similaritive
|
-kavkan / -kəvkən
|
burk → burxkəvkən
|
dog → canid
|
| Feature
|
-əni / -ane / -ni / -ne
|
salaj → salajne
|
hair → hairy
|
| Affiliative
|
-əni / -ane / -ni / -ne
|
govta → govtane
|
family → familiar
|
| Privative
|
lo-...-əni / -ane / -ni / -ne
|
kefe → lokefene
|
tooth → toothless
|
Verb
Verb to noun
| Agentive
|
-jem / -jim
|
kent- → kentjem
|
(to) shoot → shooter
|
| Experiencer, adressee, object
|
-(ə)n-jim / -(a)n-jem
|
tak- → takanjem
|
(to) teach → learner
|
| Result
|
-ben / -bin
|
tab- → tavben
|
(to) fall → (a) fall
|
| Instance
|
-
|
taḥla- → taḥla
|
(to) speak → speech
|
| Instrument
|
-mane / -məni
|
talp- → talpmane
|
(to) beat → whip
|
| Place
|
-'a / -ha / -'ə / -hə
|
təm- → təm'a
|
(to) kill → slaughterhouse
|
Verb to verb
Adjective
Adjective to noun
| Abstract
|
-jak / -jək
|
bahol → baholjak
|
strong → strength
|
Adjective to adjective
| Intensification
|
-gere / -giri
|
dubu → dubugiri
|
big → very big
|
| Excess
|
-kat / -xat / -kət / -xət
|
tifi → tifixət
|
small → too small
|
Syntax
Word order
Copular particles
| Translative
|
sin
|
became
|
| Essive
|
tu'
|
be
|
Causativity
| kuft
|
| to cause
|
litimən → litimən likuft
|
I am seeing → I am showing
|
| lihəxən → lihəxən likuft
|
I am going → I am leading
|
| lifərən → lifərən likuft
|
I am carrying → I am elevating
|
See Also
