Phonology
Consonants
|
|
Bilabial
|
Labiodental
|
Alveolar
|
Postalveolar
|
Palatal
|
Velar
|
Labialized velar
|
Glottal
|
| Nasal
|
m
|
|
n
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Plosive
|
p b
|
|
t d
|
|
|
k g
|
kʷ gʷ
|
ʔ
|
| Affricate
|
|
p̪͡f b̪͡v
|
|
t͡ʃ d͡ʒ
|
|
k͡x g͡ɣ
|
k͡xʷ g͡ɣʷ
|
|
| Fricative
|
|
f v
|
θ̱ ð̱
|
ʃ ʒ
|
|
x ɣ
|
xʷ ɣʷ
|
ɦ
|
| Tap
|
|
|
ɾ
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Glide
|
|
|
|
|
j
|
|
|
|
| Lateral approximant
|
|
|
l
|
|
|
ʟ
|
|
|
Spelling
p t k kʷ ʔ /p t k kw '/
b d g gʷ /b d g gw/
p̪͡f t͡ʃ k͡x k͡xʷ /pf tš kx kxw/
b̪͡v d͡ʒ g͡ɣ g͡ɣʷ /bv dž gḫ gḫw/
f θ̱ ʃ x xʷ /f θ š x xw/
v ð̱ ʒ ɣ ɣʷ ɦ /v ð ž ḫ ḫw h/
m n /m n/
l ʟ /l ł/
ɾ /r/
j /y/
Vowels
|
|
Front
|
Central
|
Back
|
| Close
|
|
ɨ ɨː
|
|
| Mid
|
e̞ e̞ː
|
ə əː
|
o̞ o̞ː
|
| Open
|
|
ä äː
|
|
Spelling
ɨ ɨː /i í/
e̞ e̞ː ə əː o̞ o̞ː /e é ə ə́ o ó/
ä äː /a á/
Phonotactics
C(R)V(ː)(n-P)(C)
n-P = non-plosive consonant
V = any vowel or syllabic nasal/lateral
Geminates are not allowed in syllabic onset.
Accent
Acute accent on second syllable of word, grave on first.
Grammar
Nouns
- split-active alignment
- three-way object
- two noun class (preffixal): Animate, Inaminate
- six cases: Absolutive (Inactive), Ergative (Active), Genetive, Dative, Instrumental, Locative
- number combined with noun class: singular, paucal, plural
- relational nouns for locational contexts, and postpositions for others (mixed system)
(Noun class + Number) + Root + Root extension + Case
Noun class and number
| Animate singular
|
š- / šə-
|
šmer
|
man
|
| Animate plural
|
t- / tə-
|
tmer
|
men
|
| Inanimate singular
|
'- / -
|
kxwek
|
stone
|
| Inanimate plural
|
l- / ł-
|
łkxwek
|
stones
|
Declension
| Absolutive
|
-
|
šəḫwá
|
jaguar
|
| Ergative
|
-at / -t
|
šəḫwát
|
| Genetive
|
-ja
|
šəḫwája
|
of jaguar
|
| Dative
|
-ri
|
šəḫwári
|
to/for jaguar
|
| Instrumental
|
-nen
|
šəḫwánen
|
by/with jaguar
|
| Locative
|
-lo
|
šəḫwálo
|
(in/on) jaguar
|
Relational nouns
[Relational noun + Locative] + [Noun + Genetive case ending]
Šəbver kəθ kxiθlo vakxəja kəθja sapf.
"The dog is sleeping on top of the mat."
| 'ałaθ
|
inside
|
in
|
| kxiθ
|
top
|
on
|
| tšə́kxa
|
head
|
above
|
| gḫóm
|
bottom
|
under
|
| tap
|
side
|
beside
|
| bárə
|
distance
|
away
|
| tóntə
|
centre
|
between
|
| klep
|
back
|
behind, after
|
| bve
|
outside
|
out
|
| 'ołog
|
wheel
|
around
|
| trap
|
front
|
before, opposite to
|
| yéme
|
time
|
during, in time of
|
Verbs
- affirmativity (suffixal)
- four tenses (suffixal): Remote past, Prehodiernal past, Hodiernal past, Non-past
- two aspects (preffixal): Completive, Incompletive
- four moods (suffixal): Declarative, Energetic, Conditional, Subjunctive
- Active, Passive vs Causative (constructional passive vs infixal causative)
- three subjective persons (preffixal), active and inactive forms, no clusivity
- evidentiality (cliticized): from first hand, from second hand, from other hands
Subject + Aspect + (Root + Causativity) + Root extension + Tense + Mood + Affirmativity + Evidentiality
Tense
| Remote past
|
-ə́ḫw / -ḫw
|
'etə́ḫw
|
to go (action in far past, but no later as week or two weeks ago)
|
| Prehodiernal past
|
-l / -ł
|
'etl
|
to go (action accomplished before today, but no further as week or two weeks ago)
|
| Hodiernal past
|
-iθ / -θ
|
'etiθ
|
to go (action accomplished earlier today)
|
| Non-past
|
-
|
'et
|
to go (action in present or future time)
|
Aspect
| Incompletive
|
-
|
θlál
|
to think (action is incompleted)
|
| Completive
|
pe- / pe'-
|
peθlál
|
to think (action is completed)
|
Voice
|
|
Direct
|
Causative
|
| Active
|
-
|
gwéð
|
to see
|
-nə-
|
gwénəð
|
to show
|
| Passive
|
[copular verb + passive participle]
|
'ar gwéðaf
|
to be seen
|
-
|
'ar gwénəðaf
|
to be shown
|
Moods
| Declarative
|
-
|
kwáyl
|
to speak
|
| Energetic
|
-to
|
kwáylto
|
surely to speak
|
| Conditional
|
-lá-
|
kwáyllá
|
would speak
|
| Subjunctive
|
-šə́
|
kwáylšə́
|
may speak
|
Polarity
| Affirmative
|
-
|
ket-
|
to stand
|
| Negative
|
-ma-
|
ketam-
|
don't to stand
|
Evidentiality
| From first hand
|
-kí
|
'akwakí
|
to drink (and it is known from direct witness)
|
| From second hand
|
-yo
|
'akwayo
|
to drink (and it is known from indirect source)
|
| From other hands
|
-noh
|
'akwanoh
|
to drink (and it is known from widespread rumor)
|
Person
Inactive
|
|
Singular
|
Plural
|
| 1.
|
-am / -'am
|
hotšam
|
I lie, I am situated
|
-ant / -'ant
|
hotšant
|
we lie, we are situated
|
| 2.
|
-eθ / -'eθ
|
hotšeθ
|
thou lie, thu art situated
|
-eθt
|
hotšeθt
|
you lie, you are situated
|
| 3.
|
-
|
hotš
|
he / she / it lie, I am situated
|
-í / -'í
|
hotše
|
they lie, they are situated
|
Active
|
|
Singular
|
Plural
|
| 1.
|
-oy / -'oy
|
haboy
|
I am working
|
-oyt
|
haboyt
|
we are working
|
| 2.
|
-ił / -'ił
|
habił
|
thou art working
|
-iłt / -'iłt
|
habiłt
|
you are working
|
| 3.
|
-əh / -'əh
|
habəh
|
he / she / it are working
|
-əht / -'əht
|
habəht
|
they are working
|
Non-finite verbs
Infinitives
| Action noun
|
-lon
|
gwéðlon
|
vision, seeing
|
| Infinitive
|
-la
|
gwéðla
|
to see
|
| Supinum
|
-lik
|
gwéðlik
|
to/for seeing
|
Participles
Adjectivals
| Active
|
-or / -'or
|
gwéðor
|
seeing
|
| Passive
|
-af / -'af
|
gwéðaf
|
seen
|
Adverbials
| Active
|
-or-e / -'or-e
|
gwéðore
|
seeing
|
| Passive
|
-af-e / -'af-e
|
gwéðafe
|
seen
|
Adjectives
Degrees of comparison
| Positive
|
Comparative
|
Superlative
|
| -
|
yó
|
féx
|
| 'išah
|
yó 'išah
|
féx 'išah
|
| good
|
better
|
best
|
Adverbs
Degrees of comparison
| Positive
|
Comparative
|
Superlative
|
| -
|
yó
|
féx
|
| 'išahe
|
yó 'išahe
|
féx 'išahe
|
| well
|
better
|
best
|
Numerals
Cardinal numerals
| 1.
|
moyto
|
| 2.
|
baryá
|
| 3.
|
fobyeh
|
| 4.
|
'inepe
|
| 5.
|
metlé
|
| 6.
|
džorgḫo
|
| 7.
|
tšołor
|
| 8.
|
θigol
|
| 9.
|
kinsár
|
| 10.
|
tárom
|
| 11.
|
tárom moyto
|
| 12.
|
tárom baryá
|
| 20.
|
baryá tárom
|
| 21.
|
baryá tárom moyto
|
| 30
|
fobyeh tárom
|
| 100.
|
tartár
|
Derived numerals
|
|
Ordinal
|
Multiplicative
|
Reproductive
|
Distributive
|
| yá
|
kxaya
|
kotša
|
fey
|
| 1.
|
moyto yá
|
moyto kxaya
|
moyto kotša
|
moyto fey
|
Pronouns
- active and inactive forms
- no clusivity
Personal pronouns
Inactives
|
|
Animate
|
Inaminate
|
| Singular
|
Plural
|
Singular
|
Plural
|
| 1.
|
šná
|
I / me
|
tə́n
|
we / us
|
|
| 2.
|
šəyé
|
thou / thee
|
təyé
|
you
|
yé
|
thou / thee
|
lyé
|
you
|
| 3.
|
šəθə́
|
he / him / she / her
|
təθə́
|
they / them
|
θə́
|
it
|
lθé
|
they / them
|
Actives
|
|
Singular
|
Plural
|
| 1.
|
šoy
|
I
|
toy
|
we
|
| 2.
|
šił
|
thou
|
tił
|
you
|
| 3.
|
šəh
|
he / she
|
təh
|
they
|
Possessive pronouns
|
|
Animate
|
Inaminate
|
| Singular
|
Plural
|
Singular
|
Plural
|
| 1.
|
šnár
|
I / me
|
tə́nr
|
we / us
|
|
| 2.
|
šəyér
|
thou / thee
|
təyér
|
you
|
yér
|
thou / thee
|
lyér
|
you
|
| 3.
|
šəθə́r
|
he / him / she / her
|
təθə́r
|
they / them
|
θə́r
|
it
|
lθér
|
they / them
|
Demonstrative pronouns
|
|
Proper
|
Distant
|
Indefinite
|
| Person / Object
|
kəθ
|
this
|
dəθ
|
that
|
xəθ
|
someone / something there
|
| Place
|
kətal
|
here
|
dətal
|
there
|
xətal
|
somewhere there
|
| Source
|
kətalat
|
from here
|
dətalat
|
from there
|
xətalat
|
from somewhere there
|
| Purpose direction
|
kətalto
|
to here
|
dətalto
|
to there, so far
|
xətalto
|
to somewhere there
|
| Path
|
kəstak
|
this way
|
dəstak
|
that way
|
xəstak
|
some way
|
| Time
|
kəyém
|
now
|
dəyém
|
then
|
| Method
|
kəmand
|
in this way
|
dəmand
|
in that way
|
xəmand
|
in some way
|
| Quantity
|
kəfla
|
so much
|
| Qualify
|
kətrenθ
|
like this here
|
dətrenθ
|
like that
|
xətrenθ
|
like something there
|
| Reason
|
kəšerk
|
for this reason
|
dəšerk
|
for that reason
|
xəšerk
|
for some reason
|
Interrogative, relative, indefinite and unlimited pronouns
|
|
Interrogative / Relative
|
Indefinite
|
Unlimited
|
| Person / Object
|
twa
|
who ? which ?
|
twali
|
someone
|
θeθtwali
|
anyone
|
| Place
|
twatal
|
where ?
|
twatalli
|
somewhere
|
θeθtwatali
|
anywhere
|
| Source
|
twatalat
|
whence ?
|
twatalli'at
|
from somewhere
|
θeθtwatalli'at
|
from anywhere
|
| Purpose direction
|
twatalto
|
whither ?
|
twatallito
|
to somewhere
|
θeθtwatallito
|
to anywhere
|
| Path
|
twastak
|
which way ?
|
twastakli
|
via some way
|
θeθtwastakli
|
via any way
|
| Time
|
twayém
|
when ?
|
twayémli
|
once
|
θeθtwayémli
|
ever
|
| Method
|
twamand
|
how ?
|
twamandli
|
somehow
|
θeθtwamandli
|
anyhow
|
| Quantity
|
twafla
|
how much ?
|
twaflali
|
somehow much
|
θeθtwaflali
|
anyhow much
|
| Quality
|
twatrenθ
|
which one ?
|
twatrenθli
|
some
|
θeθtwatrenθli
|
any
|
| Reason
|
twašerk
|
why ?
|
Negative, universal and alternative pronouns
|
|
Negative
|
Universal
|
Alternative
|
| Person / Object
|
matwa
|
nobody, nothing
|
xwášitwa
|
every
|
tenetwa
|
anyone else
|
| Place
|
matal
|
nowhere
|
xwášital
|
everywhere
|
tenetal
|
elswhere
|
| Source
|
matalat
|
from nowhere
|
xwášitalat
|
from everywhere
|
tenetalat
|
from elswhere
|
| Purpose direction
|
matalto
|
to nowhere
|
xwášitalto
|
to everywhere
|
tenetalto
|
to elswhere
|
| Path
|
mastak
|
through no way
|
xwášistak
|
through all ways
|
tenestak
|
which way else
|
| Time
|
mayém
|
never
|
xwášiyém
|
always
|
teneyém
|
when else
|
| Method
|
mamand
|
nohow
|
xwášimand
|
in all methods
|
tenemand
|
otherwise
|
| Quantity
|
mafla
|
nothing
|
tenefla
|
otherwise than so many
|
| Quality
|
matrenθ
|
neuter, indistinct
|
xwášitrenθ
|
any
|
tenetrenθ
|
other
|
Numeral pronouns
| Interrogative / Relative
|
twafla
|
how much ?
|
| Indefinite
|
twaflali
|
write a number
|
| Unlimited
|
θeθtwaflali
|
however many
|
| Negative
|
mafla
|
nothing
|
| Alternative
|
tenefla
|
otherwise than so many
|
Reflexive-reciprocal and cooperative pronouns
| Reflexive / Reciprocal
|
θen
|
oneself / each other
|
| Cooperative
|
θenem
|
together cooperatively
|
Postpositions
| Companion, attributive object
|
'em
|
with
|
Instrumental
|
| Originative direction
|
'at
|
from
|
Genetive
|
| Destinative direction, purpose, goal
|
to
|
to
|
Genetive
|
| Lack
|
ma'em
|
without
|
Genetive
|
| Alternative
|
'áθ
|
instead
|
Genetive
|
| Contrary
|
pfare
|
against
|
Dative
|
| Resistance
|
tama
|
despite, though
|
Dative
|
| Stylization
|
łándə
|
along to, according to
|
Dative
|
| Benefactive
|
žot
|
for, destined to
|
Dative
|
| Essive
|
xaš
|
as, at character of
|
Absolutive
|
Particles
Conjunctions
| Paratactical conjunctions
|
| Copulative
|
že
|
and
|
| Conjunctive
|
žere
|
also
|
| Disjunctive
|
vah
|
or
|
| Contrastive, exceptional
|
atša
|
but
|
| Consequentive
|
ḫwa
|
so
|
| Comparative
|
lo
|
than
|
|
|
| Hypotactical conjunctions
|
| žežot
|
to, for
|
| džate
|
althought
|
| šerkem
|
because
|
| 'arže
|
if
|
| kwó
|
that, providing
|
Modifiers
| Restrictive
|
moyto'e
|
only
|
| Additive
|
'arkwó
|
yet
|
Polarity particles
| Affirmative
|
kxay
|
yes
|
| Negative
|
má
|
no
|
Word formation
Compounding
Derivation
Noun
Noun to noun
| Diminutive
|
-šik
|
šəkwank → šəkwankšik
|
daughter → little daughter
|
| Augmentative
|
-vá
|
móng → móngvá
|
mountain → grand mountain
|
| Contradiction
|
ma-
|
šmer → mašmer
|
human → non-human
|
| Similarity
|
-trenθ
|
θərpfə → θərpfətrenθ
|
tree → pseudo-tree
|
| Half
|
-ðáł
|
šəbver → šəbverðáł
|
dog → half-dog
|
| Relational abstract
|
-yóh
|
šxwére → šxwéreyóh
|
brother → brotherhood
|
| Related person
|
-ori
|
škaplə → škaplori
|
cow → cowman
|
| Collective
|
-ad-ah
|
hapfa → hapfa'adah
|
bird → birds (a a collective)
|
| Place
|
-tal-ah
|
tok → toktalah
|
fire → campfire
|
| Art / Craft
|
-ori-ah
|
ḫwargḫa → ḫwargḫa'ori'ah
|
war → craft of war
|
| Knowledge
|
-yong-ah
|
hiłgi → hiłgiyongah
|
herb → herbalism
|
| Expert
|
-ori
|
hiłgi → hiłgi'ori
|
herb → herbalist
|
Noun to adjective
| Possessive
|
-tíθ
|
šmer → šmertíθ
|
man → human
|
| Originative
|
-at
|
wángə́ → wángə́'at
|
sky → celestial
|
| Similaritive
|
-trentí (← trenθ-tí)
|
šmərgḫa → šmərgḫatrenθí
|
cat → felid
|
| Feature
|
-tíθ
|
lyáfa → lyáfatíθ
|
hair → hairy
|
| Affiliative
|
-em-tíθ
|
šnígwə → šnígwemtíθ
|
family → familiar
|
| Privative
|
ma-...-tíθ
|
gnitš → magnitštíθ
|
tooth → toothless
|
Verb
Verb to noun
| Agentive
|
-ori
|
šitš- → ššitšori
|
(to) shoot → shooter
|
| Experiencer, adressee
|
-ori-af
|
fagw- → fagwori'af
|
(to) teach → learner
|
| Result
|
-vat
|
ked- → kedvat
|
(to) fall → (a) fall
|
| Instance
|
-yóh
|
kwáyl- → kwáylyóh
|
(to) speak → speech
|
| Instrument
|
-nin
|
bvat- → bvatnin
|
(to) beat → whip
|
| Place
|
-tal-ah
|
brík- → bríktalah
|
(to) kill → slaughterhouse
|
Verb to verb
Adjective
Adjective to noun
| Abstract
|
-yóh
|
džag → džagyóh
|
strong → strength
|
Adjective to adjective
| Tendency
|
-tin
|
'išah → 'išahtin
|
good → bland
|
| Intensification
|
-mag
|
gwád → gwádmag
|
big → very big
|
| Excess
|
-vok
|
tšíli → tšilivok
|
small → too small
|
Syntax
Word order
- SOV (Subject - Object - Verb)
- head-initial
Copular verbs
| Translative
|
pfeh
|
became
|
| Essive
|
'ar
|
be
|
See Also
