| Proto-Qanday |
|---|
| Region |
Seforma, Archipelago |
|---|
Language family |
|
|---|
 |
Phonology
Consonants
|
|
Bilabial
|
Pharyng. bilabial
|
Alveolar
|
Pharyng. alveolar
|
Postalveolar
|
Paryng. postalveolar
|
Palatal
|
Velar
|
Labial. velar
|
Uvular
|
Glottal
|
| Nasal
|
m
|
|
n
|
nˤ
|
|
|
|
ŋ~ɴ
|
|
| Prenasalized plosive
|
|
ᵐbˤ
|
|
ⁿdˤ
|
|
|
|
|
|
ᶰɢ
|
|
| Plosive
|
p
|
pˤ bˤ
|
t
|
tˤ dˤ
|
|
|
|
k
|
|
q ɢ
|
ʔ
|
| Affricate
|
|
|
t͡s
|
t͡sˤ d͡zˤ
|
t͡ʃ
|
t͡ʃˤ d͡ʒˤ
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Fricative
|
|
|
s
|
sˤ
|
ʃ
|
ʃˤ
|
|
x~χ
|
|
| Lateral fricative
|
|
|
ɮ~ɬ~ɮˤ~ɬˤ
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Trill
|
|
|
r
|
rˤ
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Approximant
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
j
|
ɰ
|
w
|
|
|
ⁿbˤ ⁿdˤ ⁿɢ /mb nd ng/
p pˤ t tˤ k q ʔ /p ṗ t ṭ k q '/
bˤ dˤ ɢ /b d g/
t̪͡s t̪͡sˤ t͡ʃ t͡ʃˤ /ts ṭs ċ ċ'/
d̪͡zˤ d͡ʒˤ /dz dż/
s sˤ ʃ ʃˤ x~χ /s s̕ ś ś̕ h/
m n nˤ ŋ~ɴ /m n n̕ ŋ/
ɮ~ɮˤ~ɬ~ɬˤ /l/
r rˤ /r r̕/
j ɰ w /j ḥ w/
Vowels
|
|
Front
|
Central
|
Back
|
| Short
|
Long
|
Short
|
Long
|
Short
|
Long
|
| Close
|
i ĩ
|
iː ĩː
|
ɨ ɨ̃
|
ɨː ɨ̃ː
|
u ũ
|
uː ũː
|
| Mid
|
e̞
|
eː
|
|
|
ɤ̞ o̞
|
ɤː oː
|
| Open
|
|
|
|
aː ãː
|
ɒ ɒ̃
|
|
i ĩ ɨ ɨ̃ u ũ /i ĩ y ỹ u ũ/
e̞ ɤ̞ o̞ /e ə o/
ɒ ɒ̃ /a ã/
iː ĩː ɨː ɨ̃ː uː ũː /ii ĩĩ yy ỹỹ uu ũũ/
eː ɤː oː /ee əə oo/
äː ä̃ː /aa ãã/
Phonotactics
(C)CV(ː)(C)(C)
Accent
Breathy voiced stress on penultimate syllable.
Nouns
- Split-ergative system: ergative-absolutive - unvolitional vs nominative-accusative - volitional (1. Ergative = Agent, Absolutive = Subject, Patient / 2. Absolutive = Agent, Subject, Accusative = Patient).
- Secundative ditransitive alignment.
- Definiteness by pronoun.
- Possessor by pronoun.
[Root + Root extension + Gender + Case + Number + Modality determiner]
Gender
| Animate
|
Human
|
Masculine
|
-t / -ət
|
ndart
|
man
|
| Feminine
|
-jee
|
ndarjee
|
woman
|
| Non-Human
|
-n / -ən
|
wahiin
|
wolf
|
| Inaminate
|
Transportable
|
-ś / -əś
|
krãqś
|
stone
|
| Untransportable
|
-uu / -ːw
|
ngoomuu
|
mountain
|
Declension
| Absolutive
|
-
|
ndart
|
man
|
| Ergative
|
-ke
|
ndartke
|
| Accusative
|
-ta
|
ndartta
|
| Instrumental
|
-rĩĩ
|
ndartrĩĩ
|
by man
|
| Genetive
|
-ãh
|
ndartãh
|
of man
|
| Abessive
|
-nũ
|
ndartnũ
|
without man
|
Number
| Singular
|
-
|
tpanən
|
bird
|
| Dual
|
-suu
|
tpanənsuu
|
two birds
|
| Plural
|
-laa
|
tpanənlaa
|
birds
|
Nominal pre-determination of moods
| Realis
|
-
|
gambiiw
|
tree
|
| Irrealis
|
-i / -j
|
gambiiwi
|
tree (in non-indicative clause)
|
Verbs
- Causative with using an auxiliary verb.
[Subject + Root + Root extension + Tense-aspect + Voice + Object + Mood + Evidentiality]
Tense-aspects
| Past completive
|
-uq
|
'eċuq
|
to go (action was completed, or its goal was achieved)
|
| Past incompletive
|
-oor
|
'eċoor
|
to go (action was incompleted)
|
| Past habitual
|
-ooḥ
|
'eċooḥ
|
to go (action was habitually repeated)
|
| Future in past
|
-ããt
|
'eċããt
|
to go (action was planned to accomplish, but has not been taken)
|
| Present continuous
|
-
|
'eċ
|
to go (action is continuous, at time when speaker say)
|
| Present habitual
|
-iis̕
|
'eċiis̕
|
to go (action is habitually repeated, but is accomplishing when speaker say)
|
| Future convinced
|
-eeh
|
'eċeeh
|
to go (action is inevitable in future)
|
| Future dubious
|
-eem
|
'eċeem
|
to go (it is uncertain whether action will be accomplished)
|
Voice
Ergative-absolutive (Unvolitional) system
| Passive
|
-l / -əl
|
ŋaajl
|
to be seen
|
| Antipassive
|
-ar̕ / -'ar̕
|
ŋaajar̕
|
to see
|
Absolutive-accusative (Volitional) system
| Active
|
-
|
ŋaaj
|
to see
|
| Passive
|
-l / -əl
|
ŋaajl
|
to be seen
|
| Medial
|
-ũts / -'ũts
|
ŋaajũts
|
to see self
|
Moods
| Indicative
|
-
|
kloor̕
|
to speak
|
| Conditional
|
-p̕ĩĩ
|
kloor̕p̕ĩĩ
|
would speak
|
| Subjunctive
|
-taa
|
kloor̕taa
|
may speak
|
| Directive
|
-id / -'id
|
kloorid
|
speak
|
Person
Subjective
|
|
Singular
|
Dual
|
Plural
|
| 1.
|
ḥaa-
|
ḥaaŋaaj
|
I am seeing
|
hat̕-
|
'hat̕ŋaaj
|
we both are seeing
|
'ãŋ
|
'ãŋŋaaj
|
we all are seeing, but not you
|
| 'eh
|
'ehŋaaj
|
we all are seeing, together with you
|
| 2.
|
'oos-
|
'oosŋaaj
|
Thou art seeing
|
'oos̕-
|
'oos̕ŋaaj
|
You both are seeing
|
'oor-
|
'oorŋaaj
|
You all are seeing, but not them
|
| 'ooċ-
|
'ooċŋaaj
|
You all are seeing, together with them
|
| 3.
|
'ĩp-
|
'ĩpŋaaj
|
He / she / it is seeing
|
'ĩp̕-
|
'ĩp̕ŋaaj
|
Both of them are seeing
|
'ĩĩb-
|
'ĩĩbŋaaj
|
They all are seeing
|
| 4.
|
win-
|
winŋaaj
|
Someone / something is seeing
|
Objective
|
|
Singular
|
Dual
|
Plural
|
| 1.
|
-aa / -'aa
|
ŋaajaa
|
see me
|
-aat̕ / -'aat̕
|
ŋaajaat̕
|
see both of us
|
-ãŋ / -'ãŋ
|
ŋaajãŋ
|
see us all, but not you
|
| -eh / -'eh
|
ŋaajeh
|
see us all, together with you
|
| 2.
|
-oos / -'oos
|
ŋaajoos
|
see thee
|
-oos̕ / -'oos̕
|
ŋaajoos̕
|
see both of you
|
-oor / -'oor
|
ŋaajoor
|
see you all, but not them
|
| -ooċ / -'ooċ
|
ŋaajooċ
|
see you all, together with them
|
| 3.
|
-ĩp / -'ĩp
|
ŋaajĩp
|
see him / her / it
|
-ĩp̕i / -'ĩp̕i
|
ŋaajĩp̕i
|
see both of them
|
-ĩbe / -'ĩbe
|
ŋaajĩbe
|
see them all
|
| 4.
|
-win
|
ŋaajwin
|
see someone / something
|
Evidentiality
| Visual
|
-
|
qudz
|
to sit (and it is visible)
|
| Non-visual
|
-kĩ
|
qudzkĩ
|
to sit (and it is not visible, but known from another sensoric source)
|
| Reported
|
-jã
|
qudzjã
|
to sit (and it is uncertain and unconfirmed information from other hand(s))
|
| Assumed
|
-qoo
|
qudzqoo
|
to sit (and it is result of deduction)
|
Non-finite verbs
| Action noun
|
-ma-
|
ŋaajmaś
|
vision, seeing
|
| Participles
|
| Adjectival
|
-rah
|
ŋaajrah
|
seeing
|
| Adverbial
|
-ro
|
ŋaajro
|
seeing
|
Adjective
Degrees of comparison
| Positive
|
Comparative
|
Superlative
|
| -
|
wa'-
|
mbar-
|
| tsan
|
wa'tsan
|
mbartsan
|
| good
|
better
|
best
|
Adverb
Degrees of comparison
| Positive
|
Comparative
|
Superlative
|
| -
|
wa'-
|
mbar-
|
| tsano
|
wa'tsano
|
mbartsano
|
| well
|
better
|
best
|
Numerals
Cardinal numerals
| 1.
|
ngaan
|
| 2.
|
'oċaar
|
| 3.
|
lurkũ
|
| 4.
|
dwãsũ
|
| 5.
|
tigine
|
Derived numerals
|
|
Ordinal
|
Multiplicative
|
Reproductive
|
Distributive
|
| ma-
|
śkee-
|
nari-
|
dũsu-
|
| 1.
|
mangaan
|
śkeengaan
|
naringaan
|
dũsungaan
|
| 2.
|
ma'oċaar
|
śkee'oċaar
|
nari'oċaar
|
dũsu'oċaar
|
| 3.
|
malurkũ
|
śkeelurkũ
|
narilurkũ
|
dũsulurkũ
|
| 4.
|
madwãsũ
|
śkeedwãsũ
|
naridwãsũ
|
dũsudwãsũ
|
| 5.
|
matigine
|
śkeetigine
|
naritigine
|
dũsutigine
|
Numeral adverbs
| baan̕o
|
many
|
| ċiiko
|
little
|
| daal
|
half
|
| p̕eśkee
|
how many times ?
|
| səptyn
|
so often
|
Pronouns
- Gender suffixes on number stems.
Personal pronouns
Subjectives
|
|
Singular
|
Dual
|
Plural
|
| 1.
|
ḥaan
|
I
|
hat̕
|
we both
|
'ãŋ
|
we all
|
| 'e'
|
we both and you
|
'eh
|
we all and you
|
| 2.
|
'oos
|
Thou
|
'oos̕
|
You both
|
'oor
|
You all
|
| 'ook
|
You both and he / she / it
|
'ooċ
|
You all and he / she / it
|
| 3.
|
'ĩp
|
He / she / it
|
'ĩp̕
|
Both of them
|
'ĩĩb
|
They all
|
| 4.
|
win
|
Someone / something
|
Objectives
|
|
Singular
|
Dual
|
Plural
|
| 1.
|
hnaa
|
I
|
ht̕a
|
we both
|
'ãŋaa
|
we all
|
| 'e'aa
|
we both and you
|
hee
|
we all and you
|
| 2.
|
'osaa
|
Thou
|
'os̕aa
|
You both
|
'oraa
|
You all
|
| 'okaa
|
You both and he / she / it
|
'oċaa
|
You all and he / she / it
|
| 3.
|
'ĩpa
|
He / she / it
|
'ĩp̕a
|
Both of them
|
'ĩbaa
|
They all
|
| 4.
|
winaa
|
Someone / something
|
Possessive pronouns
|
|
Singular
|
Dual
|
Plural
|
| 1.
|
ḥaaniś
|
my
|
hat̕iś
|
of both us
|
'ãŋiś
|
of us all
|
| 'e'iś
|
of both us and your
|
'ehiś
|
of us all and your
|
| 2.
|
'oosiś
|
thy
|
'oos̕iś
|
of you both
|
'ooriś
|
of you all
|
| 'ookiś
|
of you both and him / her / its
|
'ooċiś
|
of you all and him / her / its
|
| 3.
|
'ĩpiś
|
Him / her / its
|
'ĩp̕iś
|
of both them
|
'ĩĩbiś
|
of they all
|
| 4.
|
winiś
|
Someone / something else's
|
Demonstrative pronouns
|
|
Proper
|
Distant
|
Indefinite
|
| Person / Object
|
səə
|
this
|
kəə
|
that
|
ŋəə
|
someone / something there
|
| Place
|
sətloq
|
here
|
kətloq
|
there
|
ŋətloq
|
somewhere there
|
| Source
|
'awsətloq
|
from here
|
'awkətloq
|
from there
|
'awŋətloq
|
from somewhere there
|
| Purpose direction
|
se'sətloq
|
to here
|
se'kətloq
|
to there, so far
|
se'ŋətloq
|
to somewhere there
|
| Path
|
səkwal
|
this way
|
kəkwal
|
that way
|
ŋəkwal
|
some way
|
| Time
|
səboon
|
now
|
kəboon
|
then
|
| Method
|
səraak
|
in this way
|
kəraak
|
in that way
|
ŋəraak
|
in some way
|
| Quantity
|
səbaan̕
|
so much
|
| Qualify
|
sətloqsə
|
like this here
|
kətloqkə
|
like that
|
ŋətloqŋə
|
like something there
|
| Reason
|
səmaag
|
for this reason
|
kəmaag
|
for that reason
|
ŋəmaag
|
for some reason
|
Interrogative, relative, indefinite and unlimited pronouns
|
|
Interrogative / Relative
|
Indefinite
|
Unlimited
|
| Person / Object
|
p̕el
|
who ? which ?
|
p̕elŋ
|
someone
|
p̕elŋaan
|
anyone
|
| Place
|
p̕etloq
|
where ?
|
p̕eltloqŋ
|
somewhere
|
p̕eltloqŋaan
|
anywhere
|
| Source
|
'awp̕etloq
|
whence ?
|
'awp̕etloqŋ
|
from somewhere
|
'awp̕etloqŋaan
|
from anywhere
|
| Purpose direction
|
se'p̕etloq
|
whither ?
|
se'p̕etloqŋ
|
to somewhere
|
se'p̕etloqŋaan
|
to anywhere
|
| Path
|
p̕ekwal
|
which way ?
|
p̕ekwalŋ
|
via some way
|
p̕ekwalŋaan
|
via any way
|
| Time
|
p̕eboon
|
when ?
|
p̕ekwalŋ
|
once
|
p̕ekwalŋaan
|
ever
|
| Method
|
p̕eraak
|
how ?
|
p̕eraakŋ
|
somehow
|
p̕eraakŋaan
|
anyhow
|
| Quantity
|
p̕ebaan'
|
how much ?
|
p̕ebaan'ŋ
|
somehow much
|
p̕ebaan'ŋaan
|
anyhow much
|
| Quality
|
p̕ees
|
which one ?
|
ngaanes
|
some
|
p'eesŋaan
|
any
|
| Reason
|
se'maag
|
why ?
|
Negative, universal and alternative pronouns
|
|
Negative
|
Universal
|
Alternative
|
| Person / Object
|
baap̕e
|
nobody, nothing
|
rtãã
|
every
|
p̕eqtot
|
anyone else
|
| Place
|
baatloq
|
nowhere
|
rtããtloq
|
everywhere
|
tloqtot (← tloq-qtot)
|
elswhere
|
| Source
|
'awbaatloq
|
from nowhere
|
'awrtããtloq
|
from everywhere
|
'awtloqtot
|
from elswhere
|
| Purpose direction
|
se'baatloq
|
to nowhere
|
se'rtããtloq
|
to everywhere
|
se'tloqtot
|
to elswhere
|
| Path
|
baakwal
|
through no way
|
rtããkwal
|
through all ways
|
kwaalqtot
|
which way else
|
| Time
|
baaboon
|
never
|
rtããboon
|
always
|
booŋqtot
|
when else
|
| Method
|
baaraak
|
nohow
|
rtããraak
|
in all methods
|
raaqtot (← raak-qtot)
|
otherwise
|
| Quantity
|
baabaan'
|
nothing
|
baaŋqtot
|
otherwise than so many
|
| Quality
|
baats
|
neuter, indistinct
|
tsəraak
|
any
|
tsəət
|
other
|
Numeral pronouns
| Interrogative / Relative
|
p̕ebaan'
|
how much ?
|
| Indefinite
|
p̕ebaan'ŋ
|
write a number
|
| Unlimited
|
p̕ebaan'ŋaan
|
however many
|
| Negative
|
baabaan'
|
nothing
|
| Alternative
|
baaŋqtot
|
otherwise than so many
|
Reflexive-reciprocal and cooperative pronouns
| Reflexive / Reciprocal
|
śih
|
oneself / each other
|
| Cooperative
|
śihċi (← śih + ċi)
|
together cooperatively
|
Prepositions
Spatials, ablatival and allatival directionals
| ḥo
|
in, inside
|
Absolutive
|
| 'awḥo
|
from inside
|
Accusative
|
| se'ḥo
|
to inside
|
Genetive
|
|
|
| s̕a
|
on
|
Absolutive
|
| 'aws̕a
|
from on
|
Accusative
|
| se's̕a
|
onto
|
Genetive
|
|
|
| s̕a'o
|
above
|
Absolutive
|
| 'aws̕a'o
|
from above
|
Accusative
|
| se's̕a'o
|
to above
|
Genetive
|
|
|
| tsa'o
|
under
|
Absolutive
|
| 'awtsa'o
|
from under
|
Accusative
|
| se'tsa'o
|
to under
|
Genetive
|
|
|
| knen
|
beside
|
Absolutive
|
| 'awknen
|
from beside
|
Accusative
|
| se'knen
|
to beside
|
Genetive
|
|
|
| gaaw
|
away
|
Absolutive
|
| 'awgaan
|
from away
|
Accusative
|
| se'gaan
|
to away
|
Genetive
|
|
|
| lago
|
between
|
Absolutive
|
| 'awlago
|
from between
|
Accusative
|
| se'lago
|
to between
|
Genetive
|
|
|
| daam
|
behind
|
Absolutive
|
| 'awdaam
|
from behind
|
Accusative
|
| se'daam
|
to behind
|
Genetive
|
|
|
| de
|
out
|
Absolutive
|
| 'awde
|
from out
|
Accusative
|
| se'de
|
to out
|
Genetive
|
|
|
| ḥoċatar
|
around
|
Absolutive
|
| 'awċatar
|
from around
|
Accusative
|
| se'ċatar
|
to around
|
Genetive
|
|
|
| gook
|
before, opposite to
|
Absolutive
|
| 'awgook
|
from before, from opposite to
|
Accusative
|
| se'gook
|
to before, to opposite to
|
Genetive
|
|
|
| boon
|
during, in time of
|
Absolutive
|
| 'awboon
|
from time of
|
Accusative
|
| se'boon
|
to time of
|
Genetive
|
|
|
| ktsa
|
after
|
Absolutive
|
| 'awktsa
|
from after
|
Accusative
|
| se'ktsa
|
to after
|
Genetive
|
Other prepositions
| Companion, attributive object
|
ḥal
|
with
|
Instrumental
|
| Originative direction
|
'aw
|
from
|
Accusative
|
| Destinative direction, purpose, goal
|
se'
|
to
|
Genetive
|
| Lack
|
bar̕
|
without
|
Genetive
|
| Alternative
|
ḥotloq
|
instead
|
Genetive
|
| Contrary
|
preeḥ
|
against
|
Genetive
|
| Resistance
|
ḥada
|
despite, though
|
Genetive
|
| Stylization
|
s̕adãlo
|
along to, according to
|
Instrumental
|
| Benefactive
|
tsu
|
for, destined to
|
Genetive
|
| Essive
|
ḥoskaat
|
as, at character of
|
Absolutive
|
| Excessive
|
'awskaat
|
from character of
|
Accusative
|
Particles
Conjunctions
| Paratactical conjunctions
|
| Copulative
|
ċi
|
and
|
| Conjunctive
|
ċikaa
|
also
|
| Disjunctive
|
weel
|
or
|
| Contrastive, exceptional
|
oot
|
but
|
| Consequentive
|
kaa
|
so
|
| Comparative
|
t̕ĩ
|
than
|
|
|
| Hypotactical conjunctions
|
| nak
|
to, for
|
| toho
|
althought
|
| se'nak
|
because
|
| taś
|
if
|
| ky
|
that, providing
|
Modifiers
| Restrictive
|
ngaano
|
only
|
| Additive
|
ċita'
|
yet
|
Polarity particles
| Affirmative
|
ja'
|
yes
|
| Negative
|
baa
|
no
|
Word formation
Compounding
Derivation
Noun
Noun to noun
| Diminutive
|
-ċi-
|
t̕wãkjee → t̕wãkċijee
|
daughter → little daughter
|
| Augmentative
|
-doom-
|
ngoomuu → ngoomdoomuu
|
mountain → grand mountain
|
| Contradiction
|
baa-
|
ndart → baandart
|
human → non-human
|
| Similarity
|
-ḥool-
|
gambiiw → gambiḥooluu
|
tree → pseudo-tree
|
| Half
|
daal-
|
kalabn → daalkalabn
|
dog → half-dog
|
| Relational abstract
|
-jootuu
|
ḥoort̕ → ḥoort̕jootuu
|
brother → brotherhood
|
| Related person
|
-teh-
|
buuln → buulteht
|
cattle → cowman
|
| Collective
|
-dja-
|
tpanən → tpandjan
|
bird → birds (as a collective)
|
| Place
|
-tlo-
|
pyyr̕ś → pyyr̕tloś
|
fire → campfire
|
| Art / Craft
|
-teh-dja-ś
|
quudyś → quudytehdjaś
|
war → craft of war
|
| Knowledge
|
-dja-tuuś (← -dja-jootuu-ś)
|
sylqydjateht → sylqydjatuuś
|
herbalist → herbalism
|
| Expert
|
-dja-teh-
|
sylqyn → sylqydjateht
|
herb → herbalist
|
Noun to adjective
| Possessive
|
-iq-
|
ndart → ndartiqt
|
man → human
|
| Originative
|
-aw-
|
wããḥaw → wããḥawawt
|
sky → celestial
|
| Similaritive
|
-netse-
|
karḥan → karḥanetset
|
cat → felid
|
| Feature
|
-dũ-
|
śeneś → śenedũt
|
hair → hairy
|
| Affiliative
|
-iqaw-
|
krãljee → krãliqawt
|
family → familiar
|
| Privative
|
baa-...-iq-
|
tũũtuu → baatũũtiqt
|
tooth → toothless
|
Verb
Verb to noun
| Agentive
|
-teh-
|
kte- → kteteht
|
(to) shoot → shooter
|
| Experiencer, adressee, object
|
-ne-
|
luub- → luubnet
|
(to) teach → learner
|
| Result
|
-weh-
|
bag- → bagwehuu
|
(to) fall → (a) fall
|
| Instance, abstract
|
-juu
|
kloor̕- → kloor̕juu
|
(to) speak → speech
|
| Instrument
|
-nĩs-
|
qaap- → qaapnĩs
|
(to) beat → whip
|
| Place
|
-tloquu
|
breeq- → breeqtloquu
|
(to) kill → slaughterhouse
|
Verb to verb
Adjective
Adjective to noun
| Abstract
|
-juu
|
ga'ool → ga'ooljuu
|
strong → strength
|
Adjective to adjective
| Tendency
|
-tĩk-
|
tsan → tsantĩkt
|
good → bland
|
| Intensification
|
-taar-
|
dwaad- → dwaadtaart
|
big → very big
|
| Excess
|
-tow-
|
ċiik- → ċiiktowt
|
small → too small
|
Syntax
Word order
Copular verbs
| Translative
|
ksũs
|
became
|
| Essive
|
soḥ
|
be
|
Causativity
| rãd
|
| to cause
|
ḥaaŋaaj → ḥaarãd ŋaajmaś
|
I am seeing → I am showing
|
| ḥaa'eċ → ḥaarãd 'eċmaś
|
I am going → I am leading
|
| ḥaamũt → ḥaarãd mũtmaś
|
I am carrying → I am elevating
|
See Also
