Phonology
Consonants
|
|
Bilabial
|
Alveolar
|
Palatal
|
Velar
|
Glottal
|
| Nasal
|
m
|
n
|
ɲ
|
ŋ
|
|
| Plosive
|
p
|
t
|
c
|
k
|
ʔ
|
| Fricative
|
f v
|
θ̠ ð̠
|
ç ʝ
|
x ɣ
|
h
|
| Trill
|
|
r
|
|
|
|
| Lateral approximant
|
|
l
|
ʎ
|
|
|
Spelling
p t c k ʔ /p t c k '/
f θ̠ ç x h /f θ ç ḫ h/
v ð̠ ʝ ɣ /v ð j x/
m n ɲ ŋ /m ń ŋ/
l ʎ r /l ḷ r/
Vowels
|
|
Front
|
Central
|
Back
|
| Unrounded
|
Rounded
|
Unrounded
|
Rounded
|
| Close
|
iː
|
|
|
|
uː
|
| Mid-Close
|
|
ɘ
|
ɵ
|
|
|
| Mid-Open
|
ɛː
|
|
ɞ
|
|
|
| Open
|
|
|
|
ɑ
|
ɒː
|
Spelling
Long vowels
iː uː /í ú/
ɛː /é/
ɒː /á/
Long vowels
ɘ ɵ /i u/
ɞ /e/
ɑ /a/
Phonotactics
(C)(R)V(ː)(R)(C)
C = any consonant
R = any resonantal consonant
V = any vowel
Vː = any long vowel
Accent
Morphologically unchanged, on first syllable of main root.
Grammar
Nouns
- ergative-genetive alignment
- secundative ditransitive alignment
- four cases (suffixal): Ergative, Genetive, Instrumental, Prepositional
- no gender
- definite article, indefinite article based on number one.
- number (preffixal): singular, plural
[Article] + [Number + Root + Root extension + Case]
Declension
| Ergative
|
-
|
hulmá
|
wolf
|
agent, lexical form
|
| Genetive
|
-θe
|
hulmáθe
|
wolf, of wolf
|
intransitive subject, patient, ditransitive recipient, possessor
|
| Instrumental
|
-lal
|
hulmálal
|
by wolf, with wolf
|
instrument, accompaniament, ditransitive theme
|
| Relational
|
-ni
|
hulmáni
|
(in/at/to/...) wolf
|
used with various relational nouns
|
Number
| Singular
|
-
|
keme
|
man
|
| Plural
|
ti- / c-
|
tikeme
|
men
|
Definiteness
| Definite
|
ða
|
ða çrél
|
the flower
|
| Indefinite
|
ha
|
ha çrél
|
a flower
|
Relational nouns
Relational noun + [Noun + Relative case ending]
Xáç 'ar θíp ða katapni ða juke.
"The dog is sleeping on top of the mat."
Spatials
| 'aḫu
|
inside
|
in
|
| θíp
|
top
|
on
|
| kavða
|
head
|
above
|
| tám
|
bottom
|
under
|
| pék
|
side
|
beside
|
| xál
|
distance
|
away
|
| ciŋke
|
centre
|
between
|
| kelp
|
back
|
behind, after
|
| náḫ
|
outside
|
out
|
| vekele
|
wheel
|
around
|
| 'aftu
|
front
|
before, opposite to
|
| númu
|
time
|
during, in time of
|
Other relationals
| Companion, attributive object
|
jeh
|
with
|
| Originative direction
|
'ari
|
from
|
| Destinative direction, purpose, goal
|
haθu
|
to
|
| Lack
|
vajeh
|
without
|
| Alternative
|
kelke
|
instead
|
| Contrary
|
tavá
|
against
|
| Resistance
|
haθri
|
despite, though
|
| Stylization
|
xajva
|
along to, according to
|
| Benefactive
|
ńín
|
for, destined to
|
| Essive
|
'íçu
|
as, at character of
|
Verbs
- transitivity marked
- two aspects: progressive, stative
- two moods: realis, irrealis
- causative infixed into root
[Aspect + (Root + Causative) + Root extension + Transitivity + Mood] + [Object] + [Subject]
Aspect
| Incompletive
|
-
|
'uc
|
to go (incomplete action)
|
| Completive
|
reduplication of root's onset
|
'u'uc
|
to go (completed action)
|
Causativity
| Non-causative
|
-
|
kén
|
to see
|
| Causative
|
-ra-
|
kéran
|
to show
|
Transitivity
| Intransitive
|
-
|
'ic
|
to eat (in intransitive clause)
|
| Transitive
|
-eh
|
'iceh
|
to eat (in transitive clause)
|
Moods
| Realis
|
-
|
kláθ
|
to speak
|
| Irrealis
|
-tú
|
kláθtú
|
would speak (and other non-declarative meanings)
|
Non-finite verbal forms
| Action noun
|
-lí
|
jíplí
|
living
|
| Infinitive
|
-at -'at
|
jípat
|
to live
|
| Participle
|
-ní
|
jipní
|
living
|
Adjective / Adverb
Degrees of comparison
| Positive
|
Comparative
|
Superlative
|
| -
|
-já
|
-θar
|
| fíl
|
fíḷá (← fíl-já)
|
fílθar
|
| good
|
better
|
best
|
Numerals
Cardinal numerals
| 1.
|
harakap
|
| 2.
|
kucara
|
| 3.
|
varakma
|
| 4.
|
varakma-kucara
|
| 5.
|
varakma-kucara-harakap
|
Derived numerals
|
|
Ordinal
|
Multiplicative
|
Reproductive
|
Distributive
|
| ju
|
kín
|
ta'éh
|
pep
|
| 1.
|
harakap ju
|
harakap kín
|
harakap ta'éh
|
harakap pep
|
| 2.
|
kucara ju
|
kucara kín
|
kucara ta'éh
|
kucara pep
|
| 3.
|
varakma ju
|
varakma kín
|
varakma ta'éh
|
varakma pep
|
| 4.
|
varakma-kucara ju
|
varakma-kucara kín
|
varakma-kucara ta'éh
|
varakma-kucara pep
|
| 5.
|
varakma-kucara-harakap ju
|
varakma-kucara-harakap kín
|
varakma-kucara-harakap ta'éh
|
varakma-kucara-harakap pep
|
Pronouns
Personal pronouns
Subjective
|
|
Singular
|
Plural
|
| 1.
|
jíθ
|
I
|
lé
|
we all, but not you
|
| nám
|
we all, together with you
|
| 2.
|
çí
|
Thou
|
θem
|
You all
|
| 3.
|
'ar
|
He / she / it
|
cam
|
They all
|
Objective
|
|
Singular
|
Plural
|
| 1.
|
ni
|
me
|
li
|
us all, but not you
|
| nemi
|
us all, together with you
|
| 2.
|
çíri
|
Thee
|
θemri
|
You all
|
| 3.
|
'arri
|
Him / her / its
|
camri
|
Them all
|
Possessive pronouns
|
|
Singular
|
Plural
|
| 1.
|
nijah
|
my
|
léjah
|
of us all, but not you
|
| námjah
|
of us all, together with you
|
| 2.
|
çíjah
|
thy
|
θemjah
|
of you all
|
| 3.
|
'arjah
|
his / her / its
|
camjah
|
of they all
|
Demonstrative pronouns
|
|
Definite
|
Indefinite
|
| Person / Object
|
ða
|
this
|
ha
|
someone / something
|
| Place
|
ðanah
|
here
|
hanah
|
somewhere
|
| Path
|
ðatrem
|
this way
|
hatrem
|
some way
|
| Time
|
ðanúm
|
now
|
hanúm
|
then
|
| Method
|
ðanréθ
|
in this way
|
hanréθ
|
in some way
|
| Quantity
|
ðaxáli
|
so much
|
| Quality
|
ðaḫa'ov
|
like this
|
haḫa'ov
|
like something
|
| Reason
|
ðapanθi
|
for this reason
|
hapanθi
|
for some reason
|
Interrogative, relative, indefinite and unlimited pronouns
|
|
Interrogative / Relative
|
Indefinite
|
Unlimited
|
| Person / Object
|
xat
|
who ? which ?
|
xavi
|
someone
|
xaθuŋlu
|
anyone
|
| Place
|
xanah
|
where ?
|
xanahvi
|
somewhere
|
xanahθuŋlu
|
anywhere
|
| Path
|
xatrem
|
which way ?
|
xatremvi
|
via some way
|
xatremθuŋlu
|
via any way
|
| Time
|
xanúm
|
when ?
|
xanúmvi
|
once
|
xanúmθuŋlu
|
ever
|
| Method
|
xanréθ
|
how ?
|
xanréθvi
|
somehow
|
xanréθθuŋlu
|
anyhow
|
| Quantity
|
xaxáli
|
how much ?
|
xaxálivi
|
somehow much
|
xaxáliθuŋlu
|
anyhow much
|
| Quality
|
xaḫa'ov
|
which one ?
|
xaḫa'ovvi
|
some
|
xaḫa'ovθuŋlu
|
any
|
| Reason
|
xapanθi
|
why ?
|
Negative, universal and alternative pronouns
|
|
Negative
|
Universal
|
Alternative
|
| Person / Object
|
vexa
|
nobody, nothing
|
járxa
|
every
|
rúxaθuŋ
|
anyone else
|
| Place
|
vexanah
|
nowhere
|
járnah
|
everywhere
|
rúnahθuŋ
|
elswhere
|
| Path
|
vexatrem
|
through no way
|
jártrem
|
through all ways
|
rútremθuŋ
|
which way else
|
| Time
|
vexanúm
|
never
|
járnúm
|
always
|
rúnúmθuŋ
|
when else
|
| Method
|
venréθ
|
nohow
|
járnréθ
|
in all methods
|
rúnréθθuŋ
|
otherwise
|
| Quantity
|
vexáli
|
nothing
|
rúxáliθuŋ
|
otherwise than so many
|
| Quality
|
veḫa'ov
|
neuter, indistinct
|
járvi
|
any
|
rúθuŋ
|
other
|
Numeral pronouns
| Interrogative / Relative
|
xaxáli
|
how much ?
|
| Indefinite
|
xaxálivi
|
write a number
|
| Unlimited
|
xaxáliθuŋlu
|
however many
|
| Negative
|
vexáli
|
nothing
|
| Alternative
|
rúxáliθuŋ
|
otherwise than so many
|
Reflexive-reciprocal pronoun
| Reflexive / Reciprocal
|
liŋ
|
oneself / each other
|
Particles
Conjunctions
| Paratactical conjunctions
|
| Copulative
|
hí
|
and
|
| Conjunctive
|
híni
|
also
|
| Disjunctive
|
te
|
or
|
| Contrastive, exceptional
|
té'
|
but
|
| Consequentive
|
ḫúm
|
so
|
| Comparative
|
jaf
|
than
|
|
|
| Hypotactical conjunctions
|
| fáða
|
to, for
|
| helða
|
althought
|
| 'elkip
|
because
|
| fá
|
if
|
| θíŋ
|
that, providing
|
Modifiers
| Restrictive
|
lete
|
only
|
| Additive
|
hute
|
yet
|
Polarity particles
| Affirmative
|
na
|
yes
|
| Negative
|
ve
|
no
|
Word formation
Compounding
Derivation
Noun
Noun to noun
| Diminutive
|
-ńí
|
tlíńci → tlińcińi
|
daughter → little daughter
|
| Augmentative
|
-uxa / -xa
|
vaðú → vaðúxa
|
mountain → grand mountain
|
| Contradiction
|
ve-
|
keme → vekeme
|
human → non-human
|
| Similarity
|
-ḫa'ov
|
pampú → pampúḫa'ov
|
tree → pseudo-tree
|
| Half
|
-θele
|
juke → jukeθele
|
dog → half-dog
|
| Relational abstract
|
-mén
|
karaḷ → karaḷmén
|
brother → brotherhood
|
| Related person
|
-ní
|
vúva → vúvaní
|
cow → cowman
|
| Collective
|
-ḫar
|
feteθ → feteθḫar
|
bird → birds (a a collective)
|
| Place
|
-nah
|
kek → keknah
|
fire → campfire
|
| Art / Craft
|
-tu'ok
|
ḫaraŋ → ḫaraŋtu'ok
|
war → craft of war
|
| Knowledge
|
-ðáv-ḫar
|
kuθlí → kuθlíðávḫar
|
herb → herbalism
|
| Expert
|
-ðáv-ní
|
kuθlí → kuθlíðávní
|
herb → herbalist
|
Noun to adjective
| Possessive
|
-ma
|
keme → kemema
|
man → human
|
| Originative
|
-'ari
|
návu → návu'ari
|
sky → celestial
|
| Similaritive
|
-ḫa'ov-ma
|
juke → jukeḫa'ovma
|
dog → canid
|
| Feature
|
-jár-ma
|
fjéθ → fjéθjárma
|
hair → hairy
|
| Affiliative
|
-jeh-ma
|
tímpa → tímpajehma
|
family → familiar
|
| Privative
|
ve-...-ma
|
funt → vefuntma
|
tooth → toothless
|
Verb
Verb to noun
| Agentive
|
-ní
|
fút- → fútní
|
(to) shoot → shooter
|
| Experiencer, adressee, object
|
-liŋ-ní
|
θríl- → θrílliŋní
|
(to) teach → learner
|
| Result
|
-fe
|
kap- → kapfe
|
(to) fall → (a) fall
|
| Instance
|
-naç
|
kláθ- → kláθnaç
|
(to) speak → speech
|
| Instrument
|
-tul
|
ḫap- → ḫaptul
|
(to) beat → whip
|
| Place
|
-nah
|
xem- → xemnah
|
(to) kill → slaughterhouse
|
Verb to verb
Adjective
Adjective to noun
| Abstract
|
-mén
|
xárt → xártmén
|
strong → strength
|
Adjective to adjective
| Intensification
|
-xál
|
dáŋ → dáŋxál
|
big → very big
|
| Excess
|
-líń
|
míŋk → míŋklíń
|
small → too small
|
Syntax
Word order
Copular particles
| Translative
|
fé
|
became
|
| Essive
|
'aç'
|
be
|
See Also
